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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 25 SEPTEMBER 2025

GLOBAL SOUTH

1. Context

The concept of multilateralism is “under attack”, even as countries of the Global South are seeking more solutions from international organisations such as the United Nations

2. The need for the ‘Global North’ and the ‘Global South

  • For a long time in the study of international political systems, the method of categorising countries into broad categories for easier analysis has existed.
  • The concepts of ‘East’ and ‘West’ is one example of this, with the Western countries generally signifying greater levels of economic development and prosperity among their people and Eastern countries are considered as being in the process of that transition.
  • Another similar categorisation is of First World, Second World and Third World countries, referring to countries associated with the Cold war-era alliances of the US, the USSR, and non-aligned countries, respectively.
  • At the centre of these concepts is the World Systems approach introduced by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein in 1974, emphasising an interconnected perspective of looking at world politics.
  • He said there are three major zones of production: core, peripheral and semiperipheral.
  • The core zones reap profits, being the owners of cutting-edge technologies in countries like the US or Japan.
  • Peripheral zones, on the other hand, engage in less sophisticated production that is more labour-intensive. In the middle are countries like India and Brazil.

3. The need for new terms

  • In the Post-Cold War world, the First World/Third World classification was no longer feasible, because when the Communist USSR disintegrated in 1991, most countries had no choice but to ally at some level with the capitalist US the only remaining global superpower.
  • Other classifiers have also seen criticism. The East/West binary was seen as often
    perpetuating stereotypical thinking about African and Asian countries.
  • Categorising incredibly diverse countries into a monolith was felt to be too simplistic.
    Also, the idea that some countries were ‘developed’ while others were not was thought to be too wide a classification, inadequate for accurately discussing concerns.
Writing in 2014 from the perspective of his organisation’s philanthropic activities,
Bill Gates said of the ‘developing’ tag, “Any category that lumps China and the
Democratic Republic of Congo together confuses more than it clarifies. Some so-called developing countries have come so far that it’s fair to say they have developed. A handful of failed states are hardly developing at all. Most countries are somewhere in the middle.”

4. Importance of Global South 

  • What sets the terms Global North and South apart are that first, they are arguably more accurate in grouping like countries together, measuring similarly in terms of wealth, indicators of education and healthcare, etc.
  • Another commonality between the South countries is that most have a history of colonisation, largely at the hands of European powers.
  • Secondly, this classification trains more focus on the Global South. When leaders such as Jaishankar mentioned, they are also pointing to the region’s historical exclusion from prominent international organisations such as the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.
  • As bodies like the UN and the IMF are involved in major decision-making that affects the world in terms of politics, economy and society, the exclusion is seen by these countries as contributing to their slower growth.
  • As a result, the idea that the South can together advocate for common causes has
    come up, as underlined by the External Affairs Minister.
Interestingly, when Jaishankar criticised the expectation of India to take a stance on the Ukraine war and rebuke Russia in June this year, China’s state-owned newspaper Global Times praised the comments. This is where the idea of ‘SouthSouth’ cooperation comes in.
  • Why the concept is being reiterated now partly because of the economic emergence of some of these South countries, such as India and China, in the last few decades.
  • Many consider the world to now be multipolar rather than one where the US alone dominates international affairs.
  • The progress achieved by many Asian countries is also seen as challenging the idea that the North is ideal.
  • As Samuel P Huntington wrote in his 1996 book ‘The Class of Civilizations and the Remaking of Global Order, “East Asians attribute their dramatic economic development not to their import of Western culture but rather to their adherence to their own culture.”

5. Criticism of the classification

  • Some of the earlier terms’ criticisms apply here, too, such as the argument that the term is too broad.
  • In the ongoing debate about North countries paying for funding green energy, having historically contributed to higher carbon emissions, many in the Global North have objected to China and India’s exclusion from this, given their increasing industrialisation.
  • There is also the question of whether the South simply aims to replace the North and the positions it occupies, again continuing a cycle in which a few countries accumulate crucial resources.
  • Much controversy currently surrounds the question of whether elites of the global South and ‘rising powers’ genuinely have the intention to challenge the dominant structures of global capitalist development.
  • In the rise of Asia, the continued neglect of Africa has been questioned as well.
  • China is increasingly making inroads here through the Belt and Road Initiative for developing infrastructure.
  • But whether that results in a win-win situation for both parties or focuses on profit for only China remains to be seen.

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: G20, Global South, Global North, Cold war, Post-Cold War, UNSC, UN, IMF, Russia and Ukraine War, SouthSouth Cooperation
For Mains:
1. What is Global South? Discuss the significance and impact of Global South in India. (250 Words)

Previous Year Questions

For Prelims

1. In which one of the following groups are all the four countries members of G20? (UPSC 2020)

(a) Argentina, Mexico, South Africa and Turkey
(b) Australia, Canada, Malaysia and New Zealand
(c) Brazil, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Vietnam
(d) Indonesia, Japan, Singapore and South Korea

1. Ans: (a)

For Mains
1. “The broader aims and objectives of WTO are to manage and promote international trade in the era of globalization. But the Doha round of negotiations seem doomed due to differences between the developed and the developing countries.” Discuss in the Indian perspective. ( UPSC 2016)
 
Source: The Indian Express
 

PERSONALITY RIGHTS

1. Context

The Delhi High Court has recently issued a series of orders protecting the personality rights of Bollywood celebrities from unauthorised commercial use. On September 9 and 10, Justice Tejas Karia granted relief to actors Aishwarya Rai Bachchan and Abhishek Bachchan, after they flagged the misuse of their images and voices through AI-generated content and merchandise. A week later, Justice Manmeet P.S. Arora extended similar protections to filmmaker Karan Johar, by barring the unauthorised use of his persona through deepfakes, and other digital manipulation. Actors Amitabh Bachchan, Anil Kapoor, and Jackie Shroff have already secured such protections. These petitions signal a wider push for judicial recognition of personality rights in the digital era.

2. About personality rights

  • Personality rights are the rights of a person to protect their identity, including their name, voice, signature, images, and any other feature easily identified by the public.
  • Personality rights are not expressly mentioned in a statute in India but are traced to fall under the right to privacy and the right to property.
  • The closest statute to protect personality rights is Article 21 of the Constitution of India under rights to privacy and publicity.
  • Other statutory provisions protecting personality rights include the Copyright Act, 1957. According to the Act, moral rights are only granted to authors and performers, including actors, singers, musicians, and dancers.
  • The provisions of the Act mandate that the Authors or the Performers have the right to be given credit or claim authorship of their work and also have a right to restrain others from causing any kind of damage to their work.
  • The Indian Trademarks Act, 1999 also protects personal rights under Section 14, which restricts the use of personal names and representations.
  • The Delhi High Court and the Madras High Court have passed interim orders protecting the personality rights of celebrities, but the law is still at a nascent stage in India.
  • Celebrities often register some aspects of their personality as trademarks to use them commercially. For example, Usain Bolt's "bolting" or lightning pose is a registered trademark.

4. How have Indian courts decided so far?

  • In a recent case, the Delhi High Court granted an ex-parte, omnibus injunction restraining 16 entities from using actor Anil Kapoor's name, likeness, and image for commercial purposes.
  • The court also granted an injunction against the use of technological tools like Artificial Intelligence, face morphing, and GIFs to create unauthorised versions of Kapoor.
  • In an earlier case, the Delhi High Court had issued a similar injunction against the unauthorised use of Amitabh Bachchan's personality rights.
  • The court had injuncted the use of variations of his name such as "Big B", his unique style of addressing the computer as "'Computer ji", and his catchphrase "lock kiya jaye".
  • In 2015, the Madras High Court observed that "personality right vests on those persons, who have attained the status of celebrity".
  • The court's observation came in the actor Rajnikanth's lawsuit against the producers of the movie "Main hoon Rajnikanth", claiming that his name, image, and style of delivering dialogues had infringed on his personality rights.
  • The court said that the producers after admitting that the actor has a high reputation can't now say that Rajnikanth is a common name.

5. When can the Court grant an injunction?

The Delhi High Court has listed out the following elements comprising the liability for infringement of the right of publicity:

  • The right has to be valid. This means that the court must be satisfied that the "plaintiff owns an enforceable right in the identity or persona of a human being."
  • The celebrity must be easily identifiable in the alleged misuse. "The celebrity must be identifiable from the defendant’s unauthorized use Infringement of right of publicity requires no proof of falsity, confusion, or deception, especially when the celebrity is identifiable," the HC had said.
  • The defendant must have intended to trade upon the identity of the plaintiff, from which identifiability can be presumed.

6. Conclusion

In essence, the protection of personality rights in India remains a developing area of law, with celebrities increasingly seeking legal recourse to safeguard their distinct identities in an evolving digital landscape.

For Prelims: Personality rights, Delhi High Court, Madras High Court, Right to property, trademark, right to privacy, Article 21, Copyright Act, 1957
For Mains:
1. Explain how can the legal framework for protecting personality rights in India be strengthened to better address the challenges of the digital age. (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. What is the position of the Right to Property in India? (UPSC 2021) 
A. Legal right available to citizens only
B. Legal right available to any person
C. Fundamental Right available, to citizens only
D. Neither Fundamental Right nor legal right
Answer: B
 
2. In order to comply with TRIPS Agreement, India enacted the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration & Protection) Act, 1999. The difference/differences between a "Trade Mark" and a Geographical Indication is/are (UPSC 2010)
1. A Trade Mark is an individual or a company's right whereas a Geographical Indication is a community's right.
2. A Trade Mark can be licensed whereas a Geographical Indication cannot be licensed.
3. A Trade Mark is assigned to the manufactured goods whereas the Geographical Indication is assigned to the agricultural goods/products and handicrafts only.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 
A. 1 only          B. 1 and 2 only        C. 2 and 3 only         D. 1, 2 and 3
 
Answer: B
 
3. Which of the following statements regarding Article 21 of the Constitution of India is/ is correct?  (CDS GK 2017)
1. Article 21 is violated when under-trial prisoners are detained under judicial custody for an indefinite period.
2. Right to life is one of the basic human rights and not even the state has the authority to violate that right.
3. Under Article 21, the right of a woman to make reproductive choices is not a dimension of personal liberty.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1, 2 and 3     B. 1 and 2 only     C. 1 and 3 only        D. 2 only
 
Answer: B
 
4. Article 21 of Indian Constitution secures: (OPSC OAS 2018)
A. Right to life only
B. Right to personal liberty only
C. Right to liberty and privacy
D. Right to life, personal liberty and right to privacy
 
Answer: D

5. ‘Right to Privacy’ is protected under which Article of the Constitution of India? (UPSC 2021)

(a) Article 15
(b) Article 19
(c) Article 21
(d) Article 29

Answer: C

6. Right to Privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty. Which of the following in the Constitution of India correctly and appropriately imply the above statement? (2018)

(a) Article 14 and the provisions under the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution.

(b) Article 17 and the Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV.

(c) Article 21 and the freedoms guaranteed in Part III.

(d) Article 24 and the provisions under the 44th Amendment to the Constitution.

Answer: C
 
Source: The Indian Express
 
 

FREE TRADE AGREEMENT 

1. Context

In a rapidly evolving geopolitical and trade context, the European Union (EU) has emerged as the most proactive economy in strategically reorienting its trade policy in search of alternative partners beyond the United States (US). In view of the impending risks of President Donald Trump assuming power in 2025, the EU, as a preemptive trade policy action, signed a free trade agreement (FTA) with Mercosur in December 2024
 

2. About the Free Trade Agreement

  • A Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is an agreement between two or more countries to reduce or eliminate barriers to trade, such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies.
  • FTAs can also include provisions on other issues, such as investment, intellectual property, and labour standards.
  • The goal of an FTA is to promote trade and economic growth between the signatory countries.
  • By reducing or eliminating trade barriers, FTAs can make it easier for businesses to export their goods and services to other countries, which can lead to increased production, employment, and innovation.

3. Types of Free Trade Agreement

  • Bilateral Free Trade Agreement (BFTA) involves two countries, aiming to promote trade and eliminate tariffs on goods and services between them.  It establishes a direct trade relationship, allowing for a more focused and tailored agreement between the two nations.
  • Multilateral Free Trade Agreement (MFTA) Involving three or more countries, an MFTA seeks to create a comprehensive trade bloc, promoting economic integration on a larger scale. It requires coordination among multiple parties, addressing diverse economic interests and fostering a broader regional economic landscape.
  • Regional Free Trade Agreement (RFTA) involves countries within a specific geographic region, aiming to enhance economic cooperation and integration within that particular area. It focuses on addressing regional economic challenges and fostering collaboration among neighbouring nations.
  • Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) involves a reciprocal reduction of tariffs and trade barriers between participating countries, granting preferential treatment to each other's goods and services. It allows countries to enjoy trading advantages with specific partners while maintaining autonomy in their trade policies with non-participating nations.
  • Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) is a broad and advanced form of FTA that goes beyond traditional trade barriers, encompassing various economic aspects such as investment, intellectual property, and services. It aims for a more comprehensive economic partnership, encouraging deeper integration and collaboration between participating countries.
  • Customs Union While not strictly an FTA, a Customs Union involves the elimination of tariffs among member countries and the establishment of a common external tariff against non-member nations. It goes beyond standard FTAs by harmonizing external trade policies, creating a unified approach to trade with the rest of the world.
  • Free Trade Area (FTA) with Trade in Goods (TIG) and Trade in Services (TIS): Some FTAs specifically emphasize either trade in goods or trade in services, tailoring the agreement to the specific economic strengths and priorities of the participating countries. This approach allows nations to focus on areas where they have a comparative advantage, fostering specialization and efficiency.

4. India's Free Trade Agreements

India is a member of several free trade agreements (FTAs) and is currently negotiating others.  India's FTAs have helped to reduce trade barriers and promote trade and economic growth. They have also helped to attract foreign investment and create jobs. 

  • The South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) was signed in 1995 by the seven countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). SAFTA aims to reduce or eliminate tariffs on trade between the member countries.
  • The India-Bangladesh FTA was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Sri Lanka FTA was signed in 1999 and came into force in 2000. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2002 and came into force in 2010. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement(CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2023. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-UAE Comprehensive Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
  • The India-Malaysia Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) was signed in 2010 and aims to enhance economic ties by addressing trade in goods and services, as well as investment and other areas of economic cooperation.
  • The India-Thailand Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2003 and focuses on reducing tariffs and promoting trade in goods and services between India and Thailand.
  • The India-Singapore Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) has been operational since 2005, this agreement covers trade in goods and services, as well as investment and intellectual property.
  • The India-Nepal Trade Treaty While not a comprehensive FTA, India and Nepal have a trade treaty that facilitates the exchange of goods between the two countries.
  • The India-Chile Preferential Trade Agreement was signed in 2006 and aims to enhance economic cooperation and reduce tariffs on certain products traded between India and Chile.

5.  India - UK Free Trade Agreement

5.1. Background

  • Both countries have agreed to avoid sensitive issues in the negotiations.
  • The interim (early harvest agreement) aims to achieve up to 65 per cent coverage for goods and up to 40 per cent coverage for services.
  • By the time the final agreement is inked, the coverage for goods is expected to go up to "90 plus a percentage" of goods.
  • India is also negotiating a similar early harvest agreement with Australia, which is supposed to set the stage for a long-pending Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement that both countries have been pursuing for nearly a decade.
  • While the commencement of negotiations does mark a step forward in the otherwise rigid stance adopted and when it comes to trade liberalisation, experts point to impediments and the potential for legal challenges going ahead.

5.2. GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs)

  • The exception to the rule is full-scale FTAs, subject to some conditions.
  • One rider, incorporated in Article XXIV.8 (b) of GATT, stipulates that a deal should aim to eliminate customs duties and other trade barriers on "Substantially all the trade" between the WTO member countries that are signatories to an FTA.
  • For this Agreement, a free-trade area shall be understood to mean a group of two or more customs territories in which the duties and other restrictive regulations of commerce are eliminated on substantially all the trade between the constituent territories in products originating in such territories.
  • It is often beneficial to negotiate the entire deal together, as an early harvest deal may reduce the incentive for one side to work towards a full FTA.
  • These agreements are not just about goods and services but also issues like investment.
  • If you are trying to weigh the costs and benefits, it is always better to have the larger picture in front of you.
  • In the case of the early harvest agreement inked with Thailand, automobile industry associations had complained that relaxations extended to Bangkok in the early harvest had reduced the incentive for Thailand to work towards a full FTA.
  • Early harvest agreements may serve the function of keeping trading partners interested as they promise some benefits without long delays, as India becomes known for long-drawn negotiations for FTAs.
  • Government emphasis on interim agreements may be tactical so that a deal may be achieved with minimum commitments and would allow for contentious issues to be resolved later.
 
For Prelims: Free Trade Agreement, India-U.K, Bilateral Free Trade Agreement, G-20 Summit, Agenda 2030, Covid-19 Pandemic, SAARC, General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, Multilateral Free Trade Agreement, Regional Free Trade Agreement, Preferential Trade Agreement, Customs Union, 
For Mains: 
1. Evaluate the potential impact of the India-UK FTA on the Indian economy, considering both positive and negative aspects (250 Words)
2. Critically evaluate the significance of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) in promoting trade and economic growth, considering their potential benefits and drawbacks. (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Consider the following countries:
1. Australia
2. Canada
3. China
4. India
5. Japan
6. USA
Which of the above are among the free-trade partners' of ASEAN? (UPSC 2018)
A. 1, 2, 4 and 5          B.  3, 4, 5 and 6      C.  1, 3, 4 and 5       D.  2, 3, 4 and 6
 
Answer: C
 

2. Increase in absolute and per capita real GNP do not connote a higher level of economic development, if (UPSC 2018)

(a) Industrial output fails to keep pace with agricultural output.
(b) Agricultural output fails to keep pace with industrial output.
(c) Poverty and unemployment increase.
(d) Imports grow faster than exports.

Answer: C

3. The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following: (2010)

  1. Development of infrastructure facilities.
  2. Promotion of investment from foreign sources.
  3. Promotion of exports of services only.

Which of the above are the objectives of this Act?

(a) 1 and 2 only     (b) 3 only         (c) 2 and 3 only           (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: A

4. A “closed economy” is an economy in which (UPSC 2011)

(a) the money supply is fully controlled
(b) deficit financing takes place
(c) only exports take place
(d) neither exports nor imports take place

Answer: D

5. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club.
2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only         (b) 2 only            (c) Both 1 and 2          (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
 
 Source: The Hindu
 
 

TWO STATE SOLUTION

 
 
1. Context
 At the UN General Assembly on Monday, France became the latest global power to recognise Palestine statehood, a day after the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia did so. Portugal, Andorra, Belgium, Luxembourg, Malta, and Monaco have also confirmed their recognition of the State of Palestine.
 
2. What is a Two State Solution?
 

The two-state solution refers to a proposed resolution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, envisioning the establishment of two separate sovereign states, Israel and Palestine, coexisting side by side within agreed-upon borders.

Key elements of the two-state solution typically include:

  • Borders: Negotiating the borders between Israel and Palestine, which would likely be based on the pre-1967 lines (also known as the Green Line), with potential land swaps to accommodate demographic realities and security concerns.

  • Jerusalem: Addressing the status of Jerusalem, which is considered a holy city by Jews, Christians, and Muslims. The two-state solution often proposes Jerusalem as the capital of both Israel and Palestine, with East Jerusalem serving as the capital of the Palestinian state.

  • Security: Ensuring the security of both states, including mechanisms for demilitarisation, border security, and counterterrorism cooperation.

  • Refugees: Resolving the issue of Palestinian refugees, who were displaced during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war and subsequent conflicts. The two-state solution typically involves compensation, resettlement, and/or return options for Palestinian refugees, while also acknowledging Israel's right to exist as a Jewish state.

  • Settlements: Addressing the status of Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories. Many proponents of the two-state solution advocate for the dismantlement of Israeli settlements located outside of the agreed-upon borders of Israel.

3. Origin and History of Two-State Solution
  • The origins of the two-state solution can be traced back to the 1930s during the period of British rule in Palestine.
  • In 1936, the British government formed a commission led by Lord William Robert Peel, commonly known as the Peel Commission, to investigate the reasons behind the Arab-Jewish conflicts in Palestine.
  • A year later, the commission recommended dividing Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. At that time, Jews constituted approximately 28% of the population of Palestine.
  • According to the Peel Commission's proposal, the Arab state would encompass the West Bank, Gaza, and the Negev desert, while the Jewish state would include much of Palestine's coastline and the fertile Galilee region. However, the Arab population rejected this proposal.
  • Following World War II, the United Nations Special Commission on Palestine (UNSCOP) presented another partition plan. This plan suggested dividing Palestine into three territories: a Jewish state, an Arab state, and an international zone for Jerusalem.
  • Under the UNSCOP plan, Jews, who comprised about 32% of Palestine's population, were allocated 56% of the land.
  • The partition plan was endorsed by the UN General Assembly (Resolution 181). Despite India's vote against it, the Arab nations rejected the plan, while the Zionist leadership of Jewish settlers in Palestine accepted it.
  • Subsequently, on May 14, 1948, the Zionists unilaterally declared the establishment of the state of Israel.
  • This declaration sparked the first Arab-Israeli war. By the time an armistice agreement was reached in 1949, Israel had seized approximately 22% more territory than initially proposed by the UN
4. International Legitimacy
 
  • During the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel gained control of the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, and the Golan Heights from Syria.
  • Israel still holds authority over these territories, except for the Sinai, which it returned to Egypt following the 1978 Camp David Accords. In the 1960s, Palestinian nationalism gained momentum under the leadership of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
  • Initially, the PLO sought the complete "liberation" of all of Palestine, but later accepted the two-state solution based on the borders of 1967.
  • Israel initially dismissed any Palestinian claims to the land and labeled the PLO as a "terrorist" organization.
  • However, following the 1973 Yom Kippur War, during which Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel, Israel agreed to the Framework for Peace in the Middle East agreement at the Camp David Accords.
  • As part of the Framework, Israel consented to establish an autonomous self-governing Palestinian authority in the West Bank and Gaza Strip and to implement UN Resolution 242, which calls for Israel to withdraw from all territories it occupied in 1967.
  • The Framework laid the groundwork for the Oslo Accords, signed in 1993 and 1995, which formalized the two-state solution.
  • Under the Oslo process, a Palestinian National Authority, serving as a self-governing body, was established in the West Bank and Gaza, and the PLO was internationally recognized as the representative body of the Palestinian people.
  • The Oslo Accords held the promise of creating a sovereign Palestinian state coexisting peacefully alongside Israel. However, this promise has yet to be realized
5. What are the hurdles to achieving the two-state solution?
 
  • The assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, a key architect of the Oslo Accords, in 1995, marked a turning point. The subsequent rise of a right-wing Israeli government and the Palestinian militant group Hamas, opposed to the agreements, further strained the peace process. Despite renewed diplomatic efforts, significant hurdles persist.
  • One obstacle is the undefined borders. Israel's ongoing expansion through settlements in Palestinian territories clashes with Palestinian aspirations for a state based on the pre-1967 borders. The presence of hundreds of thousands of Israeli settlers who would need to be relocated creates a complex political challenge.
  • Another issue is the contested status of Jerusalem. Both Palestinians, who view East Jerusalem as their capital, and Israelis, who claim the entire city, have deep religious and historical attachments to the city.
  • The right of return for Palestinian refugees displaced in 1948 is another hurdle. International law supports their right to return, but Israel opposes it.
  • These unresolved issues pose significant barriers to achieving a two-state solution in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
6. Way Forward
While these are the structural factors that make the two-state solution complicated, on the ground, Israel’s rightwing leadership shows no willingness to make any concessions. Israel wants to continue the status quo — the status quo of occupation. The Palestinians want to break that status quo
 
 
For Prelims: GS II- Two State Solution, Conflict of Israel and Palestine
For Mains: GS II - Current events of International relations, The Ongoing Conflict of Israel and Palestine
 
Previous Year Questions
1.The term "two-state solution" is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of (UPSC CSE 2018)
A.China
B.Israel
C.Iraq
D.Yemen
Answer (B)
Source: The Hindu
 
 

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)

 
 
 
1. Context
 
An expert panel of the Union Environment Ministry has recommended environmental clearance for the 2,220 MW Oju hydroelectric project proposed on the Subansiri river in Taksing near the China border.
 
2. What is Environment Impact Assessment (EIA)?

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a systematic process used to evaluate the potential environmental consequences or impacts of a proposed project, plan, or program before it is approved or implemented. The goal of EIA is to ensure that decision-makers and stakeholders have a comprehensive understanding of the environmental implications of a particular undertaking, allowing them to make informed choices and mitigate adverse effects on the environment.

The EIA process involves a series of studies, assessments, and consultations to identify, predict, and evaluate the potential impacts of a project on the environment. This includes examining various aspects such as air and water quality, biodiversity, soil health, noise levels, and the socio-economic aspects of the affected communities. The information gathered during the EIA is then used to develop measures and strategies to minimize, mitigate, or offset any adverse effects on the environment.

Key components of the Environmental Impact Assessment process typically include:

  • Screening: Determining whether a proposed project requires a detailed EIA based on its scale and potential environmental significance.

  • Scoping: Identifying the key environmental concerns and defining the scope and boundaries of the assessment.

  • Baseline studies: Gathering information about the existing environmental conditions in the project area.

  • Impact prediction: Assessing the potential environmental impacts of the project based on various scenarios.

  • Mitigation and alternatives: Proposing measures to avoid, minimize, or compensate for adverse impacts. Exploring alternative project designs or locations that could have lesser environmental consequences.

  • Public participation: Involving the public and relevant stakeholders in the decision-making process, seeking their opinions and addressing their concerns.

  • Environmental Impact Statement (EIS): Compiling and presenting the findings of the assessment in a comprehensive report that includes all relevant information.

  • Decision-making: Providing the EIA report to decision-makers who use the information to make informed choices about whether to approve, modify, or reject the proposed project

3. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Environment Protection Act, 1986
 

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and the Environment Protection Act, 1986, are closely related in the context of environmental governance in India. The Environment Protection Act serves as the overarching legal framework, while the EIA process is a mechanism established under this act to assess and manage the environmental impacts of developmental activities.

  • Environment Protection Act, 1986:

    • The Environment Protection Act is a comprehensive legislation enacted in India to provide for the protection and improvement of the environment. It empowers the central government to take measures to address environmental issues, regulate activities that may have adverse impacts on the environment, and prescribe standards for emissions or discharges.
    • The act grants the government the authority to lay down procedures and safeguards to prevent environmental pollution and conserve natural resources.
    • It enables the government to take punitive actions against those who violate environmental laws and regulations.

  • Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):

    • The EIA is a process mandated under the Environment Protection Act, 1986. It is a systematic evaluation of the potential environmental impacts of proposed projects, policies, or programs before they are approved or implemented.
    • The EIA process is designed to ensure that decision-makers have comprehensive information about the environmental consequences of a project, allowing them to make informed decisions and take necessary measures to minimize adverse impacts.
    • The EIA process involves screening, scoping, baseline studies, impact prediction, alternatives assessment, public participation, and the preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).

  • Relationship between EIA and Environment Protection Act:

    • The EIA process is explicitly mentioned in the Environment Protection Act, and it is through this act that the government has the authority to establish procedures for carrying out EIAs.
    • Section 3(2)(v) of the Environment Protection Act empowers the central government to take measures to conduct environmental impact assessments, and Section 3(2)(i) gives the government authority to set standards for emissions or discharge of environmental pollutants.
    • The EIA Notification of 1994 and subsequent amendments provide the procedural details for conducting EIAs in various sectors. These notifications are issued under the powers conferred by the Environment Protection Act.
    • The Environment Impact Assessment process, therefore, operates within the legal framework established by the Environment Protection Act, ensuring that proposed projects are evaluated for their environmental impacts and that appropriate measures are taken to protect the environment
4. Why Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is Important?
 
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is important for several reasons as it serves as a crucial tool in ensuring sustainable development and responsible decision-making in various sectors.
 
Here are some key reasons why EIA is considered important:
 
  • EIA helps in systematically identifying and evaluating potential environmental impacts of proposed projects, policies, or programs. This includes impacts on air quality, water resources, biodiversity, ecosystems, and the overall environment
  • EIA provides decision-makers, including government authorities, project developers, and the public, with comprehensive and scientifically sound information about the potential environmental consequences of a proposed activity. This enables informed decision-making and allows for the consideration of environmental concerns in the decision-making process
  • Through the EIA process, potential adverse environmental impacts are identified, and mitigation measures are proposed. These measures aim to avoid, minimize, or compensate for negative effects, ensuring that the project is designed and implemented in a way that reduces environmental harm
  • EIA involves public participation, allowing local communities and stakeholders to voice their concerns and opinions regarding proposed projects. This ensures that the decision-making process is transparent, inclusive, and considers the perspectives of those directly affected by the project
  • Many countries have regulations that require the conduct of EIAs for certain types of projects. EIA, therefore, helps in ensuring compliance with environmental laws and regulations. Failure to comply may result in legal consequences for project developers
  • EIA is a key instrument for promoting sustainable development by integrating environmental considerations into the planning and execution of projects. It helps strike a balance between developmental needs and environmental conservation, ensuring that economic growth does not come at the expense of environmental degradation
  • Conducting an EIA at the early stages of project planning allows for the early detection of potential environmental issues. This proactive approach helps in avoiding costly and challenging environmental problems that might arise if issues are identified only after project implementation has begun
  • EIA is often required for projects that may have transboundary environmental impacts. It facilitates international cooperation by providing neighboring countries with information about potential cross-border environmental effects, fostering collaboration in addressing shared environmental concerns
5.Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and India
 
In India, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a crucial process mandated by law for assessing the potential environmental impacts of proposed projects, policies, or activities before they are approved or implemented.
 
Here are some key aspects of EIA in India:
 
  • EIA in India is governed by the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, and the EIA Notification issued under this act. The EIA Notification provides the procedural framework for conducting EIAs and specifies the categories of projects that require clearance from the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) before they can proceed
  • The EIA process in India applies to a wide range of projects, including industrial, mining, infrastructure, and urban development projects, among others. The EIA Notification categorizes projects into various categories based on their potential environmental impacts and establishes different clearance procedures for each category
  • The EIA process in India typically involves several stages, including screening, scoping, baseline data collection, impact prediction, alternatives assessment, public consultation, preparation of the Environmental Impact Assessment report, and decision-making by regulatory authorities
  • Public participation is a key component of the EIA process in India. The EIA Notification requires project proponents to conduct public consultations to gather feedback and address concerns from affected communities and stakeholders. Public hearings are held to provide an opportunity for the public to express their views on proposed projects.
  • Projects that are subject to EIA in India require environmental clearance from the MoEFCC or State Environment Impact Assessment Authorities (SEIAAs) before they can proceed. The clearance is granted based on the findings of the EIA report and compliance with environmental conditions and mitigation measures
 
For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change
For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
 
Previous Year Questions
 

1.Consider the following statements: The Environment Protection Act, 1986 empowers the Government of India to (2019)

1. state the requirement of public participation in the process of environmental protection, and the procedure and manner in which it is sought

2. lay down the standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer (b)
 
Source: Indianexpress
 
 

GOODS AND SERVICE TAX (GST)

 
 
1. Context
 
After having issued a directive to its field officers to monitor the price changes for 54 product categories under GST 2.0, the Centre is keeping a close watch on the benefits being passed on to the consumers as the sweeping tax rate cuts became effective from September 22, government sources said Tuesday.
 
2. What is the Goods and Services Tax (GST)?
  • The Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a value-added tax levied on the supply of goods and services at each stage of the production and distribution chain. It is a comprehensive indirect tax that aims to replace multiple indirect taxes imposed by the central and state governments in India.
  • GST is designed to simplify the tax structure, eliminate the cascading effect of taxes, and create a unified national market. Under the GST system, both goods and services are taxed at multiple rates based on the nature of the product or service. The tax is collected at each stage of the supply chain, and businesses are allowed to claim a credit for the taxes paid on their inputs.
  • The GST system in India came into effect on July 1, 2017, replacing a complex tax structure that included central excise duty, service tax, and state-level taxes like VAT (Value Added Tax), among others. The GST Council, consisting of representatives from the central and state governments, is responsible for making decisions on various aspects of GST, including tax rates and rules.
  • GST is intended to create a more transparent and efficient tax system, reduce tax evasion, and promote economic growth by fostering a seamless flow of goods and services across the country. It has a significant impact on businesses, as they need to comply with the new tax regulations and maintain detailed records of their transactions for GST filing

3.Goods and Services Tax (GST) and 101st Amendment Act, 2016

The Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India was introduced through the 101st Amendment Act of 2016. This constitutional amendment was a crucial step in the implementation of GST, which aimed to create a unified and comprehensive indirect tax system across the country.

Here are some key points related to the 101st Amendment Act and GST:

 

  • The 101st Amendment Act was enacted to amend the Constitution of India to pave the way for the introduction of the Goods and Services Tax.
  • It added a new article, Article 246A, which confers concurrent powers to both the central and state governments to levy and collect GST
  • The amendment led to the creation of the GST Council, a constitutional body consisting of representatives from the central and state governments. The council is responsible for making recommendations on GST rates, exemptions, and other related issues
  • The amendment introduced a dual GST structure, where both the central government and the state governments have the power to levy and collect GST on the supply of goods and services
  • For inter-state transactions, the 101st Amendment Act provides that the central government would levy and collect the Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST), which would be a sum total of the central and state GST
  • The amendment also included a provision for compensating states for any revenue loss they might incur due to the implementation of GST for a period of five years
The 101st Amendment Act was a critical legislative step that provided the constitutional framework for the implementation of GST in India. It addressed the need for a unified tax system, simplifying the tax structure and promoting a common market across the country. The subsequent establishment of the GST Council has played a pivotal role in the ongoing management and evolution of the GST system in India
 
4. What are the different types of Goods and Services Tax (GST)?

In India, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) is structured into different tax rates based on the nature of the goods and services. As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, the GST rates are divided into multiple slabs. It's important to note that tax rates may be subject to changes, and new amendments could have been introduced since then. As of my last update, the GST rates are as follows:

  • Nil Rate:

    • Some goods and services are categorized under the nil rate, meaning they attract a 0% GST. This implies that no tax is levied on the supply of these goods or services.

  • 5% Rate:

    • This is a lower rate, applicable to essential goods such as certain food items, medical supplies, and other basic necessities.

  • 12% Rate:

    • Goods and services falling in this category attract a 12% GST rate. Items such as mobile phones, processed foods, and certain services fall under this slab.

  • 18% Rate:

    • A higher rate of 18% is applicable to goods and services such as electronic items, capital goods, and various services.

  • 28% Rate:

    • The highest GST rate of 28% is applied to luxury items, automobiles, and certain goods and services that are considered non-essential or fall into the luxury category.

  • Compensation Cess:

    • In addition to the above rates, some specific goods attract a compensation cess, which is levied to compensate the states for any revenue loss during the transition to GST. This is often applied to items like tobacco and luxury cars.

  • Zero Rate:

    • Certain categories of goods and services may be specified as "zero-rated," which means they are effectively taxed at 0%. This is different from the nil rate, as it allows businesses to claim input tax credit on inputs, capital goods, and input services.

  • Exempt Supplies:

    • Some goods and services may be exempt from GST altogether. This means that they are not subject to any GST, and businesses cannot claim input tax credit on related inputs
 
5.Central GST (CGST), State GST (SGST), Union territory GST (UTGST) and Integrated GST (IGST)
 
 
Subject Central GST (CGST) State GST (SGST) Union Territory GST (UTGST) Integrated GST (IGST)
Levied by Central Government Respective State Governments Union Territory Administrations Central Government (on inter-state transactions)
Applicability On intra-state supplies (within the same state) On intra-state supplies (within the same state) On intra-union territory supplies (within the same union territory) On inter-state supplies (across states or union territories)
Rate Determination Determined by the Central Government Determined by the Respective State Government Determined by the Union Territory Administration IGST rate is a sum of CGST and SGST rates
Revenue Collection Collected by the Central Government Collected by the Respective State Government Collected by the Union Territory Administration Collected by the Central Government (on inter-state transactions)
Utilization of Revenue Shared between Central and State Governments Retained by the Respective State Government Retained by the Union Territory Administration Shared between Central and State Governments
Purpose Part of the dual GST structure, meant to cover central taxes Part of the dual GST structure, meant to cover state taxes Applicable in union territories for intra-territory supplies Applied to regulate and tax inter-state supplies
Input Tax Credit (ITC) ITC available for CGST paid on inputs and services ITC available for SGST paid on inputs and services ITC available for UTGST paid on inputs and services ITC available for both CGST and SGST paid on inputs
Tax Jurisdiction Applies within a particular state Applies within a particular state Applies within a particular union territory Applies to transactions across states and union territories
GSTN Portal for Filing Returns Central GSTN portal State-specific GSTN portals UTGSTN portal Integrated GSTN portal
 
 
6.What are the benefits of Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India?
 
The Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India was implemented with the aim of bringing about significant reforms in the indirect tax structure. Several benefits have been associated with the introduction of GST.
 
Here are some key advantages:
 
  • GST replaced multiple indirect taxes levied by the central and state governments, simplifying the tax structure. This streamlined system reduces the complexity of compliance for businesses
  • GST eliminates the cascading effect of taxes, where taxes are levied on top of other taxes. With a seamless credit mechanism, businesses can claim input tax credit on the taxes paid on their purchases, leading to a more transparent and efficient system
  • GST has facilitated the creation of a common national market by harmonizing tax rates and regulations across states. This has reduced trade barriers and promoted the free flow of goods and services throughout the country
  • The GST system has incorporated technology-driven processes, including electronic filing and real-time reporting, making it harder for businesses to evade taxes. This has contributed to increased tax compliance
  • The input tax credit mechanism under GST benefits manufacturers, as they can claim credits for taxes paid on raw materials and input services. This has a positive impact on the cost of production and enhances the competitiveness of Indian goods in the international market
  • GST brings transparency to the taxation system. The online filing of returns and the availability of transaction-level data make it easier for tax authorities to monitor and track transactions, reducing the scope for corruption
  • GST has replaced a complex system of filing multiple tax returns with a more straightforward mechanism. Businesses now need to file fewer returns, reducing the compliance burden
  • The implementation of GST has contributed to an improvement in the ease of doing business in India. The unified tax system has made it simpler for businesses to operate across states and has reduced the paperwork and bureaucratic hurdles associated with tax compliance
  • GST has led to the harmonization of tax rates across states and union territories, minimizing the tax rate disparities that existed earlier. This creates a more predictable tax environment for businesses
7.Goods and Services Tax (GST)-Issues and Challenge
 
  • Despite the intention to simplify the tax structure, the multi-tiered rate system (0%, 5%, 12%, 18%, and 28%) and the inclusion of cess on certain goods have introduced complexity. The classification of goods and services under different tax slabs can be challenging, leading to disputes and confusion
  • The successful implementation of GST relies heavily on technology. Issues such as technical glitches on the GSTN (Goods and Services Tax Network) portal, especially during the initial phases, have caused difficulties for businesses in filing returns and complying with regulations
  • The compliance requirements for businesses under GST, including multiple returns filing, have been perceived as burdensome. Smaller businesses, in particular, may find it challenging to adapt to the new system and comply with the various provisions
  • The transition from the previous tax regime to GST posed challenges, especially for businesses in terms of understanding the new tax structure, reconfiguring accounting systems, and ensuring a smooth transition of credits from the old tax system to the GST system
  • The classification of certain goods and services into specific tax slabs has been a source of contention. Ambiguities in classification have led to disputes and litigations, with businesses seeking clarity on the applicable tax rates
  • The implementation of GST has increased compliance costs for businesses due to the need for sophisticated IT infrastructure, the hiring of tax professionals, and efforts to ensure accurate reporting and filing
  • Challenges related to availing and matching input tax credits have been reported. Timely matching of credits and resolving discrepancies can be cumbersome, leading to concerns about the seamless flow of credit across the supply chain
  • The anti-profiteering provisions were introduced to ensure that businesses pass on the benefits of reduced tax rates to consumers. However, the implementation of anti-profiteering measures has been criticized for its complexity and potential for disputes
  • The periodic changes in the GST return filing system have created challenges for businesses in adapting their processes. Delays and complexities in return filing can affect working capital management
8.Goods and Services Tax Council (GST Council)
 
The Goods and Services Tax Council (GST Council) is a constitutional body in India that makes recommendations on the Goods and Services Tax (GST). It was established under the Constitution (122nd Amendment) Act, 2016, which introduced the GST in India

The GST Council consists of the following members:

  • The Union Finance Minister, who is the Chairperson of the Council.
  • The Union Minister of State in charge of revenue or any other Minister of State nominated by the Union Government.
  • One Minister from each state, nominated by the Governor of that state.
  • The Chief Secretary of each state, ex-officio.
  • If the President, on the recommendation of the Council, so directs, one representative of each Union territory which has a legislature, to be nominated by the Lieutenant Governor of that Union territory.
  • Three to seven members (other than Ministers) to be nominated by the Union Government, of whom at least one member shall be from the field of economics and another from the field of chartered accountancy, legal affairs or public finance
9. Way forward
 
It's important to note that the composition and structure of the GST Council may evolve over time, and there might have been changes since my last update in January 2022. To obtain the latest and most accurate information about the GST Council and its members, it is recommended to refer to official government sources or recent announcements by the relevant authorities

 

For Prelims: Economic and Social Development and Indian Polity and Governance
For Mains: General Studies II: Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of powers and finances up to local levels and challenges therein

General Studies III: Inclusive growth and issues arising from it
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1.Which of the following are true of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) introduced in India in recent times? (UGC Paper II 2020)
A. It is a destination tax
B. It benefits producing states more
C. It benefits consuming states more
D. It is a progressive taxation
E. It is an umbrella tax to improve ease of doing business
Choose the most appropriate answer from the options given below:
A.B, D and E only
B.A, C and D only
C.A, D and E only
D.A, C and E only
Answer (D)
2.What is/are the most likely advantages of implementing ‘Goods and Services Tax (GST)’? (UPSC CSE 2017)

1. It will replace multiple taxes collected by multiple authorities and will thus create a single market in India.

2. It will drastically reduce the ‘Current Account Deficit’ of India and will enable it to increase its foreign exchange reserves.

3. It will enormously increase the growth and size of the economy of India and will enable it to overtake China in the near future.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer (a)
 
Source: Indianexpress
 
 

POONA PACT

 
 
1. Context
 
24th September holds great importance in Indian history, as it was the day in 1932 when B.R. Ambedkar signed the Poona Pact with Madan Mohan Malviya, who represented Gandhi. The pact replaced the separate electorate with reservations for the Depressed Classes. Let’s know about it in detail.
 
 
2. Poona Pact
 

  • In September 1932, at Yerawada Central Jail in Pune, Mahatma Gandhi commenced a fast unto death to protest the granting of separate electorates to the Scheduled Castes. This protest ultimately led to the signing of the Poona Pact between Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

  • B.R. Ambedkar is widely recognized for awakening political awareness among Dalits, which fueled their struggle for representation and power. His political agenda focused on ensuring that lower castes gained political influence. As Ambedkar noted, “No one can address your grievances better than you, and these cannot be resolved unless political power rests in your hands.”

  • During the plenary session of the First Round Table Conference in London, Ambedkar emphasized that the Depressed Classes would remain politically powerless unless the constitutional framework provided mechanisms designed to empower them. He proposed separate electorates as a form of affirmative action to strengthen lower-caste representation.

  • The idea of separate electorates entailed a dual voting system—allowing Scheduled Castes to vote both for their own candidates and in the general electorate.

  • Ambedkar argued that joint electorates might superficially aid the integration of lower castes into Hindu society but would do little to challenge their subordinate status. He believed that in a joint electorate, the majority could control the election of Dalit representatives, preventing them from defending their community against “majority tyranny.”

  • Although Gandhi was concerned about the conditions of the untouchables, he opposed separate electorates for them. He felt such arrangements offered too limited a benefit, and instead believed that lower castes should aim for broader leadership opportunities rather than just a restricted quota of seats.

  • Gandhi’s opposition was also motivated by the fear that separate electorates would fragment Hindu society, posing a threat to the unity of the community. This stance had strategic reasoning:

    (i) Gandhi understood that the British had long exploited divisions within Indian society for their colonial objectives, and separate electorates could further facilitate this “divide and rule” approach.

    (ii) Additionally, at a time of growing Hindu-Muslim tensions, granting separate electorates to lower castes alongside those for Muslims could weaken consolidated Hindu leadership, reducing its collective political influence

 
 3. Difference of Opinions on Separate Electorates
 
 

  • At the Second Round Table Conference in 1931, the deep differences between Gandhi and Ambedkar regarding the political rights of the untouchables became evident. Gandhi remarked, “Those who speak of the political rights of the Untouchables do not know their India.”

  • Gandhi challenged Ambedkar’s claim to speak for all untouchables in India, fearing it could fragment Hindu society. Ambedkar, however, remained doubtful of Gandhi’s methods and the Congress’s commitment to ending untouchability, prioritizing the political empowerment and dignity of the Depressed Classes over the unity of Hindu society.

  • The debate between the two leaders also highlighted their differing philosophies: Gandhi referred to untouchables as “Harijans” (Children of God), while Ambedkar used the Marathi term ‘Dalits’ (Broken People). The conference concluded without any resolution.

  • Despite Gandhi’s resistance, Dalit leaders continued to press for separate electorates, with Ambedkar traveling to London to lobby British officials. This led to British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announcing the 1932 Communal Award (MacDonald Award), which granted separate electorates to Depressed Classes as well as other minorities like Muslims.

  • In response, Gandhi, while imprisoned at Yerawada Jail in Poona, began an indefinite fast demanding the withdrawal of separate electorates for untouchables. Facing Gandhi’s “extreme form of pressure,” Ambedkar eventually agreed to the Poona Pact on 24 September 1932, with Madan Mohan Malviya signing on Gandhi’s behalf. The pact replaced separate electorates with reserved seats for the Depressed Classes.

  • After ending his fast, Gandhi proposed the creation of the Anti-Untouchability League to continue efforts against untouchability. Nevertheless, tensions between Gandhi and Ambedkar continued, reflecting their fundamentally different visions of caste reform and social change

 
4.Mahad Satyagraha and Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha
 
 
  • The Mahad Satyagraha, led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927, was a landmark event in the struggle for the rights of Dalits and the fight against untouchability. It took place in the town of Mahad in Maharashtra, where Ambedkar organized a public campaign to assert the right of Dalits to access public water resources, specifically the Chavdar Tank, which had been traditionally denied to them due to caste-based discrimination.
  • This protest was not merely about drinking water; it symbolized a broader demand for equality, human dignity, and social justice. By insisting on the right to use the public tank, Ambedkar challenged the entrenched social norms that relegated Dalits to the margins of society.
  • The Mahad Satyagraha marked one of the first organized acts of civil disobedience by Dalits and highlighted Ambedkar’s philosophy that legal and social equality must be asserted through direct action.
  • Complementing his activism on the ground, Ambedkar also recognized the need for social and educational empowerment of the marginalized. In 1924, he founded the Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha (Society for the Welfare of the Excluded) to provide a platform for Dalits to organize themselves, promote education, and improve their socio-economic conditions.
  • The Sabha encouraged literacy, vocational training, and awareness of rights among the untouchables. It also served as a forum to articulate grievances, foster leadership within the community, and build solidarity against caste oppression.
  • Through this institution, Ambedkar sought to create an empowered and self-reliant Dalit community capable of challenging social discrimination and asserting their rights in both public and political spheres.
  • Together, the Mahad Satyagraha and the Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha illustrate Ambedkar’s dual approach to social reform: confronting discriminatory practices directly while simultaneously building institutional mechanisms to uplift and empower the marginalized.
  • These initiatives laid the groundwork for the larger struggle against caste-based inequalities and the pursuit of political and social justice for the Dalit community in India
 
 
For Prelims: Mahad Satyagraha of 1927, Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha, Poona Pact, Second Round Table Conference (RTC)
 
For Mains: GS I - Modern Indian History
 
 
Previous Year Questions:
1. In 1927, Who started the Mahad Satyagraha in Maharashtra (NDA 2022)
A. Mahatma Gandhi
B. Sardar Vallabhai Patel
C. Dr. Ambedkar
D. Jyotiba Phule
 
Answer: C
 
 
Source: indianexpress
 

FENTANYL

 
 
 
1. Context
 
In the latest version of the Major’s List sent to the U.S. Congress, President Donald Trump listed 23 countries as being significant sources and/or sites of transit of illicit drugs — especially fentanyl — that he said threaten the U.S. The list of countries includes India, Pakistan, China, and Afghanistan.
 
 
2. What is Fentanyl?
 
 
  • Fentanyl, a man-made opioid, has become the primary driver of drug overdose deaths in the United States. Originally created in the 1960s for medical use, it continues to be prescribed in tightly controlled doses to patients experiencing severe pain.
  • Outside medical supervision, however, fentanyl is extremely dangerous — nearly 50 times stronger than heroin. As little as 2 milligrams can be lethal, since it acts as an agonist on the mu-opioid receptors found on nerve cells, which normally interact with the body’s natural pain-regulating chemicals.
  • In high doses, fentanyl overstimulates these receptors, suppresses the brainstem’s respiratory centers that regulate automatic breathing, rapidly crosses the blood–brain barrier, and accumulates in the central nervous system. This leads to severely reduced breathing (hypoventilation) and life-threatening respiratory depression.
  • Overdoses can be countered with naloxone, a competitive antagonist of the mu-opioid receptor. By displacing fentanyl and other opioids from the receptor, it helps restore normal breathing. But naloxone must be given quickly, as prolonged oxygen deprivation can cause brain damage or death within minutes.
  • Between August 2023 and August 2024, over 57,000 Americans died from opioid overdoses, the majority linked to fentanyl. In 2022, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) reported seizing 50.6 million fentanyl-laced pills along with enough powdered fentanyl to create an estimated 379 million potentially lethal doses — enough to kill the entire U.S. population
 
The Major’s List is issued annually to identify regions where geography, trade, or industry plays a significant role in the movement of narcotics or the chemicals used to manufacture them into global markets. According to the U.S. State Department, inclusion on this list does not necessarily indicate how effective a country’s anti-narcotics measures are. Instead, it reflects whether substantial amounts of drugs or precursor chemicals are being produced or trafficked through that nation. However, certain countries — including Afghanistan, Bolivia, Myanmar, Colombia, and Venezuela — have been singled out as having “failed demonstrably” in meeting their responsibilities under international drug-control treaties
 
 
3. Why is it hard to regulate fentanyl?
 
 
  • Unlike heroin or cocaine, which are extracted from plants, fentanyl is entirely synthetic and produced in laboratories from chemical compounds known as precursors. The most significant of these are N-phenethyl-4-piperidone (NPP) and 4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine (4-ANPP). While these chemicals have legitimate industrial and pharmaceutical applications, they can also be diverted into illegal production networks.
  • In illicit labs, these precursors are chemically transformed into fentanyl powder through standard organic chemistry reactions. The process can be carried out using common glassware, basic solvents, and moderate heat.
  • This means that once traffickers acquire the precursor chemicals, converting them into fentanyl is relatively straightforward.
  • Moreover, because only minimal amounts of precursors are needed to produce large volumes of fentanyl, and they can be shipped covertly, regulating the trade has proven extremely challenging
 
 
4. How is Fentanyl Supplied?
 
 
  • The global fentanyl supply chain involves numerous players. China and India are key sources of precursor chemicals, some of which are illegally diverted. Mexican cartels are primarily responsible for converting these precursors into fentanyl powder.
  • The finished product is then either pressed into counterfeit pills or mixed with other drugs and trafficked into the U.S., mainly via the Mexico–U.S. border.
  • To combat this, the U.S. has used criminal prosecutions, trade sanctions, diplomatic engagement, and strengthened law enforcement measures. In January 2025, two Indian firms, Raxuter Chemicals and Athos Chemicals, were charged with conspiring to export fentanyl precursors to the U.S. and Mexico.
  • A senior executive at Raxuter, Bhavesh Lathiya, was arrested in New York on smuggling charges.
  • Following these developments, the U.S. Embassy in New Delhi revoked or denied visas for certain business executives linked to the illicit fentanyl trade
 
 
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