The World Bank categorizes urban flooding into three main types:

• (a) Pluvial Flooding: This type of flooding happens when intense rainfall exceeds the soil’s absorption capacity and overwhelms urban drainage systems, resulting in surface water accumulation. The World Bank notes that urbanisation exacerbates this problem by increasing non-permeable surfaces and adding channels that amplify peak water flow during floods.
• (b) Coastal Flooding: As explained by the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), this occurs primarily due to storm surges and strong winds, especially when they coincide with high tides. These surges are typically caused by rising sea levels due to low atmospheric pressure.
• (c) Fluvial Flooding: This form of flooding results when rivers overflow their banks because of heavy rainfall or melting snow. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) describes it as a sudden rise in water levels, which then recede gradually. The threat becomes serious when human settlements encroach upon floodplains, increasing vulnerability.

Apart from these, urban areas also frequently experience flash floods, which are sudden and highly localized events that occur within a short time frame—typically between three to six hours. In India, these are often triggered by cloudbursts, which involve extremely intense rainfall over a short period. Additionally, states in the Himalayan region face growing risks from glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), caused by the rising number of glacial lakes formed from rapidly melting glaciers

4. Urban Local Bodies (ULB)

“In order for cities to invest in climate resilience and undertake mitigation and adaptation measures, they must have the authority and independence to make and execute decisions,” stated Auguste Tano Kouame, the World Bank’s Country Director for India, during a press briefing. He added that while some argue this autonomy hinges on the complete enforcement of the 74th Constitutional Amendment, others hold differing views.

• The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act (1992) accorded constitutional recognition to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), aiming to empower them and promote decentralized governance. However, as of 2022, audits show that several states are yet to implement its provisions in full.

• India’s journey in urban governance began with the establishment of its first municipal corporation in Madras (now Chennai) in 1687, followed by similar institutions in Bombay and Calcutta. In 1882, Lord Ripon, widely regarded as the father of local self-government in India, laid the groundwork for democratic urban governance through his landmark resolution.

• Urban Local Bodies—including Municipal Corporations, Municipalities, and Nagar Panchayats—form the core of city-level governance. These institutions serve as the primary interface between the government and urban residents, tasked with providing essential services like sanitation, waste management, and town planning.

• Part IX-A of the Constitution outlines the structure, functions, and powers of these bodies, authorizing them to manage a broad spectrum of urban services such as land use planning, public health, and infrastructure.

• The 12th Schedule of the Constitution lists 18 specific functions delegated to ULBs. It also mandates regular elections every five years, with councillors elected from defined local wards. While the mayor holds a ceremonial position, administrative control largely rests with the municipal commissioner, typically an officer appointed by the state.

• Despite their wide-ranging responsibilities, many municipal bodies struggle with insufficient funding, limited manpower, and growing urban challenges, stretching their capacities across functions from garbage collection to city infrastructure.

• In response to these constraints, the Union Budget 2025–26 proposed the creation of a ₹1 lakh crore Urban Challenge Fund. This initiative aims to promote urban growth through projects such as ‘Cities as Growth Hubs,’ creative redevelopment efforts, and enhanced water and sanitation infrastructure

 5. What is the urban heat island effect?

• The urban heat island (UHI) effect refers to the phenomenon where urban areas experience significantly higher temperatures than their surrounding rural regions. This temperature difference arises primarily due to human activities and the way cities are built.
• In urban settings, natural landscapes like forests, wetlands, and open soil are replaced with concrete, asphalt, and buildings. These artificial surfaces absorb and retain heat from the sun during the day and release it slowly at night, causing cities to remain warmer for longer periods.
• In contrast, rural areas with more vegetation and open land tend to cool down more quickly after sunset because plants and soil do not store as much heat.
• Several factors contribute to the UHI effect. One major cause is the lack of greenery and open spaces in cities. Trees and vegetation help cool the air through a process called transpiration, where they release water vapor.
• When greenery is replaced by impermeable surfaces, this cooling effect is lost. Additionally, high-density buildings trap heat and reduce air circulation, further intensifying the warmth.
• Human activities such as the use of air conditioners, vehicles, factories, and lighting also release heat into the environment, adding to the overall temperature. The widespread use of dark-colored roofing and pavement materials, which absorb more heat than lighter surfaces, further exacerbates the problem.
• The UHI effect can have serious consequences. It increases the energy demand for cooling, especially during summer, leading to higher electricity consumption and emissions.
• It also worsens air pollution and can negatively impact public health, particularly for vulnerable groups like the elderly and children. During heatwaves, the elevated temperatures in urban areas can result in a higher number of heat-related illnesses and fatalities.
• To mitigate the UHI effect, strategies such as increasing urban green cover, using reflective or "cool" roofing materials, improving building designs, and enhancing city ventilation through proper planning are being promoted globally

6.10-Point City Climate Action Plan

Assess Risk & Plan for Climate Action

1. Local climate and disaster risk assessment, Monitoring and Evaluation

Invest in Disaster Resilience & Climate Adaptation

2. Impact-based, multi-hazard, warning and response

3. Climate-sensitive new urban development

4. Floods and heat stress resilience

5. Prioritize the urban poor and vulnerable

6. Private sector’s role in risk transfer and resilience

Invest in Resilient & Green Development

7. Compact and green city expansion, densification

8. Efficient, resilient, green municipal services – SWM (Solid Waste Management)

9. Resilient and green construction – new housing

10. Resilient and green public transport

 

For Prelims: Urban Local Bodies (ULB),  74th Amendment, Urban heat island   For Mains: GS I & II - Geography & Polity

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Which of the following is/are true regarding Urban Local Bodies in India? (UPSC CAPF 2014) 1. The Constitution’s 74th Amendment Act envisages three types of urban local bodies, namely Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, and Municipal Corporation. 2. Municipal Corporations are established in cities with a population greater than 1 million. 3. Bombay and Calcutta Corporations were the first Municipal Corporations that were established during British time. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (a)

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

INDIA'S GREEN POWER CAPACITY

 

 

1. Context

 

India has reached a key climate milestone five years ahead of schedule — as of June 30, non-fossil fuel sources account for 50.1 per cent of the country’s installed electricity capacity. When the Paris Agreement on climate change was signed in 2015, India had committed to reaching 40 per cent non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030. This target was raised to 50 per cent in 2022.

 

2. Statistics of Indian green power

 

• In 2015, energy sources like nuclear, large hydroelectric, and renewables contributed only 30% to India’s total installed power capacity. This figure grew to 38% by 2020 and saw a sharp increase over the next five years, mainly due to the surge in solar and wind energy installations.

• By June 2025, India’s overall installed power capacity had reached 485 gigawatts (GW). Out of this, renewable sources — such as solar, wind, small hydro, and biogas — contributed 185 GW, according to a release from the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).

• Additionally, large hydro accounted for 49 GW and nuclear power contributed 9 GW, collectively pushing the share of non-fossil fuel sources slightly above the 50% mark. Thermal power, which primarily relies on coal and natural gas, continued to make up 242 GW — approximately 49.9% of the total capacity. Back in 2015, thermal power had represented about 70% of the energy mix.

• As of 2024, India held the fourth position globally in terms of renewable energy capacity (including large hydro), trailing only behind China, the United States, and Brazil.

• The increasing role of renewable energy in India’s power sector reflects a major transition, largely powered by the rapid growth of solar and wind energy. However, while the installed thermal capacity now forms less than half of the total, thermal energy remains dominant in actual electricity generation. This is because solar and wind power are variable and cannot provide continuous output, resulting in thermal sources still generating over 70% of the electricity.

• Reducing the thermal share in actual energy generation — and achieving the national target of 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030 — will require considerable improvements, starting with a more resilient and stable power grid

 

 

3. Types of Renewable energy

 

• Solar Energy: Solar power is obtained by capturing the sun’s rays. It can be converted into electricity through photovoltaic (PV) panels or used to produce heat using solar thermal technologies. Given its limitless availability, solar energy is one of the most accessible renewable sources. Countries like China, the United States, India, and Japan lead globally in solar power generation.

• Hydropower: This energy is produced by utilizing the kinetic force of moving water — typically from rivers, dams, or waterfalls. It is one of the earliest and most extensively adopted forms of clean energy.

• Biomass Energy: Biomass comes from organic matter such as agricultural waste, animal manure, and wood. These materials can be burned or processed into biofuels in liquid or gas form, used for heating, power generation, or transportation. As the feedstock is renewable and can be replenished naturally, biomass is classified as a sustainable energy source.

• Wind Energy: Wind turbines transform the motion of wind into electrical power. Both land-based (onshore) and sea-based (offshore) wind installations contribute significantly to renewable energy in nations such as China, India, and the United States.

• Geothermal Energy: Geothermal power comes from the Earth’s internal heat, which may be accessed through natural hot springs or engineered systems. These underground heat sources, found at varying depths, are used to generate electricity or provide direct heating. Power plants typically use underground steam or hot water to operate turbines and generate electricity.

• Tidal and Wave Energy: These energy forms tap into oceanic movements to produce power. Tidal energy is driven by the gravitational forces of the moon and sun, while wave energy captures the force of sea surface waves to generate electricity

 

4. Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)

 

 

• On October 2, 2015, India presented its first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). By doing so, India became a participant in the UNFCCC and a signatory to the Paris Agreement — a global climate pact adopted in 2015, which follows a five-year cycle of progressively ambitious national climate goals known as NDCs.

• India’s initial NDC outlined two primary objectives: one was to cut the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33–35% by the year 2030 compared to 2005 levels; the other was to ensure that around 40% of its installed electricity capacity would come from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030.

• These targets were revised in August 2022. India increased its emissions intensity reduction target to 45% by 2030 (from the 2005 baseline), and raised its non-fossil fuel energy capacity goal to 50% of the total installed power capacity by the same year.

• Additionally, India has committed to developing 500 gigawatts (GW) of renewable energy capacity by 2030 — a goal declared by Prime Minister Narendra Modi at the COP26 summit in Glasgow. The country is also considering scaling this capacity up to 1 terawatt (TW) by 2035. Moreover, India has pledged to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by the year 2070

 

5. Government schemes which support clean energy

 

 

India has launched several initiatives to accelerate its progress toward renewable energy goals. Key programs supporting this transition include:

 

• PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan): This initiative encourages the use of solar energy in rural India by supporting the installation of small solar power plants, standalone solar pumps, and the solarisation of existing grid-connected agricultural pumps
• PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana: Introduced on February 15, 2024, this government-backed program aims to offer free electricity to Indian households. It provides financial assistance, covering up to 40% of the cost, for installing rooftop solar panels. The scheme is expected to benefit around one crore families by promoting residential solar energy adoption
• Grid-Connected Rooftop Solar Program (Pradhan Mantri Suryodaya Yojana): This scheme involves setting up solar photovoltaic systems on building rooftops to supply power to the premises. Any excess energy generated can be exported back to the main power grid
•  Green Energy Corridor Scheme: This set of infrastructure initiatives is designed to integrate renewable energy production into India's central power grid, ensuring a smooth and efficient distribution of green electricity
• National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM): Launched by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, the mission aims to produce 5 million tonnes of green hydrogen annually by 2030. To support this goal, the country plans to add around 125 GW of renewable energy capacity

 

 

For Prelims:  PM-KUSUM, National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM), Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)   For Mains: GS III - Environment and ecology

 

Previous Year Questions   1.What is/are the importance of the ‘ United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification’ ? (UPSC CSE 2016) 1. It aims to promote effective action through innovative national programmes and supportive international partnerships. 2. It has a special/particular focus on South Asia and North Africa regions, and its Secretariat facilitates the allocation of a major portion of financial resources to these regions. 3. It is committed to bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating the desertification. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (c)   Statement 1 – Correct: The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) does aim to promote effective action through innovative national programs and supportive international cooperation. It encourages countries to develop National Action Programmes (NAPs) with the support of international partnerships. Statement 2 – Incorrect: The UNCCD does not give special focus or preferential financial allocation specifically to South Asia and North Africa. While these regions are heavily affected by desertification, the Convention is global in scope and does not prioritize them in funding allocation through its Secretariat. Statement 3 – Correct: The UNCCD promotes a bottom-up approach, emphasizing the importance of local community involvement in planning and implementing strategies to combat desertification

Source: Indianexpress

 

ZONAL COUNCILS

 

 

1. Context

 

Union Home Minister Amit Shah chaired the 27th Eastern Zonal Council on Thursday (10th July) in Ranchi, Jharkhand. The Eastern Zonal Council consists of four eastern states — Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, and West Bengal.

 

2. What are Zonal Councils?

 

• The concept of Zonal Councils was first introduced by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru in 1956. During discussions on the States Reorganisation Commission's report, he proposed grouping the newly reorganized states into four or five zones. These zones would each have an Advisory Council aimed at fostering a spirit of cooperative governance, as per records from the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).

• In alignment with Nehru’s vision, five Zonal Councils were established under Part III of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956. These councils function as statutory bodies.

• Currently, the Zonal Councils are structured as follows:

  • Eastern Zonal Council: Includes Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal.

  • Northern Zonal Council: Comprises Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi (NCT), and the Union Territories of Chandigarh, Jammu & Kashmir, and Ladakh.

  • Central Zonal Council: Consists of Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh.

  • Western Zonal Council: Encompasses Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and the Union Territory of Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu.

  • Southern Zonal Council: Includes Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and the Union Territory of Puducherry.

• Additionally, the North Eastern Council (NEC) was formed as a statutory advisory body through the NEC Act of 1971 and became operational on November 7, 1972, in Shillong. Its members are Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya, and Nagaland. Sikkim, initially part of the Eastern Zonal Council, was incorporated into the NEC in 2002

 

3. Composition of Zonal Councils

 

 

(a) The Union Home Minister serves as the Chairperson of each Zonal Council.

(b) The Chief Ministers of the states within a particular zone take turns serving as the Vice-Chairperson of that zone’s Zonal Council. Each holds this position for one year on a rotational basis.

(c) From each member state, the Chief Minister and two other ministers — appointed by the respective Governor — are part of the council. Additionally, two representatives from the Union Territories in that zone also participate.

(d) Each Zonal Council includes a nominee from the Planning Commission (now NITI Aayog), along with the Chief Secretaries and another senior official designated by each participating state.

In 2018, under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, the Union Cabinet gave approval for the Union Home Minister to serve as the ex-officio Chairperson of the North Eastern Council. Meanwhile, the Minister for Development of the North Eastern Region (DoNER) was designated as the Council’s Vice-Chairperson.

The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has emphasized that Zonal Councils play a crucial role in resolving intergovernmental issues. They offer a valuable platform for open and candid discussions between the Centre and the States, as well as among States themselves. These councils promote regional cooperation among states that are interlinked by shared economic, cultural, and political ties.

4. Organisational structure of Zonal Councils

 

The Zonal Councils are high-level advisory bodies established under the States Reorganisation Act, 1956. They are designed to promote cooperation and coordination among states and the Centre. Each Zonal Council is headed and represented by key political and administrative leaders

Organisation structure as follows:

• The Union Home Minister acts as the ex-officio Chairperson of all five Zonal Councils
• The Chief Ministers of the states in the zone serve as Vice-Chairperson on a rotational basis, each for a term of one year
• The Secretary of the Inter-State Council Secretariat (ISCS) serves as the Member Secretary of all the Zonal Councils

Members

• The Chief Minister of each member state.

• Two other ministers from each state, nominated by the Governor.

• Two representatives from the Union Territories (UTs) in the zone (if applicable)

 

5. Interstate Council

 

• The Inter-State Council was formed under Article 263 of the Indian Constitution, which empowers the President to establish such a body when deemed necessary. Its primary functions include:

(a) Examining and offering advice on disputes that may arise between different states;

(b) Studying and deliberating on topics that involve a shared interest among some or all states, or between the Union and one or more states;

(c) Providing recommendations on such issues, particularly with the aim of improving policy coordination and implementation.

This council acts as a platform for structured dialogue among various levels of government.

• Importantly, the Inter-State Council is not a permanent constitutional institution. In 1988, the Sarkaria Commission, headed by Justice R. S. Sarkaria, was formed to review Centre-State relations. The commission proposed:

(a) Establishing a permanent Inter-State Council, referred to as the Inter-Governmental Council (IGC), under Article 263;

(b) Assigning the IGC the responsibilities mentioned in clauses (b) and (c) of Article 263, excluding matters related to socio-economic planning and development.

• The Council is chaired by the Prime Minister and comprises the Chief Ministers of all states and Union Territories with legislatures, Administrators of other UTs, and six Union Cabinet Ministers nominated by the Prime Minister.

• Since its inception in 1990, the Inter-State Council has convened eleven times. Its most recent meeting occurred in 2016, where key topics such as the Punchhi Commission’s recommendations on Centre-State relations, the use of Aadhaar for identification, and Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) in public service delivery were discussed.

• A Standing Committee supports the Council by facilitating continuous dialogue, reviewing matters for the Council’s consideration, and overseeing the implementation of its recommendations. The most recent formation of this committee took place in November 2024

 

For Prelims: Zonal Councils, Inter state Council, NITI Aayog, States Reorganisation Act, 1956   For Mains: GS II - Polity and Governance

 

Previous Year Questions    1.Which of the following bodies does not/do not find mention in the Constitution? (UPSC CSE 2013) National Development Council Planning Commission Zonal Councils Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (d) Mains 1.What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism. (2024)

Source: Indianexpress