RIGHT TO VOTE
1. Context
On July 10, the Supreme Court directed the Election Commission (EC) to consider Aadhaar cards, voter ID cards, and ration cards as acceptable documents for the special intensive revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar. It has listed the batch of petitions challenging the EC’s decision for further hearing on July 28.
2. Background of the latest Controversy
- Electoral rolls in India are regularly updated by the Election Commission to ensure that all eligible citizens are included and ineligible names (such as those of deceased individuals or people who have moved away) are removed. Usually, this happens through Annual Summary Revisions.
- However, sometimes, a Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is conducted, particularly when there are reports of major discrepancies in the electoral rolls or if there have been significant demographic changes.
- In Bihar, the Election Commission of India (ECI) ordered a Special Intensive Revision of the voter list, which involved house-to-house verification by booth-level officers (BLOs). This revision began in June 2024 and was set to continue till August, with the final roll expected to be published later
- The revision has been ordered after the conclusion of the 2024 Lok Sabha elections and just months before the scheduled 2025 Bihar Assembly elections. Opposition parties, particularly the Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), have raised concerns that the exercise might be used to manipulate voter lists in a way that could favor the ruling party at the state or central level.
- Opposition leaders and civil society groups have warned that the SIR could result in mass deletion of voters, especially among marginalised communities like Dalits, minorities, and migrant labourers who might not be present at home during the verification period.
- These groups are often the most vulnerable during such exercises due to lack of documentation or frequent change of residence.
Supreme Court response
- On July 10, the Supreme Court instructed the Election Commission (EC) to accept Aadhaar cards, voter ID cards, and ration cards as valid identity documents for the ongoing Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar.
- The Court also scheduled the next hearing on the group of petitions challenging the EC’s move for July 28. In doing so, the Court emphasized that the 'right to vote' lies at the heart of India’s democratic structure, drawing national attention to the core mechanisms behind the country’s electoral system and the origin of its policy of universal adult suffrage (UAS).
- India’s approach to the right to vote, as enshrined in its Constitution, stands in marked contrast to the historical trajectory seen in many Western nations. Influenced by thinkers such as J.S. Mill, who argued that voting should be reserved for the “educated” and denied to the “uninformed,” several countries began with a highly exclusive franchise.
- For instance, in the United Kingdom, voting was initially limited to male property holders. It wasn't until 1918 that all men gained voting rights, and women had to wait until 1928 to be included.
- Similarly, in the United States, while constitutional amendments—the 15th in 1870 and the 19th in 1920—technically extended voting rights to African Americans and women respectively, practical obstacles like poll taxes and literacy tests kept many citizens disenfranchised for decades
3. Universal Adult Suffrage in India
- Unlike many other countries that took a gradual approach to granting voting rights—often limiting them to elite sections and undergoing long, sometimes violent struggles—India adopted a bold and inclusive strategy from the very beginning.
- Instead of restricting suffrage, India chose universal adult franchise at the time of independence, embracing the principle of democratic equality from the outset. Article 326 of the Indian Constitution guaranteed every adult citizen the right to vote, regardless of their gender, caste, religion, education, or economic status.
- This was a progressive move, especially when compared to other nations that were still cautiously expanding voting rights. Initially, the voting age was set at 21, but it was later lowered to 18 by the 61st Constitutional Amendment in 1989.
- The nation’s strong commitment to inclusive democracy was further underlined by several landmark Supreme Court rulings, starting with the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case in 1973, which declared democracy a core feature of the Constitution’s ‘basic structure’.
- For democracy to thrive, it is essential that citizens retain the unchallenged right to choose their government freely—an essential pillar that must remain inviolable.
- This vision of inclusivity was implemented through two foundational laws: the Representation of the People Act of 1950, which oversees the creation and updating of electoral rolls, and the 1951 Act, which deals with the conduct of elections, eligibility of candidates, and electoral offences.
- The Election Commission of India (ECI) has consistently worked to fulfil this constitutional promise by introducing several administrative reforms. A notable example is the innovation introduced by Sukumar Sen, India’s first Chief Election Commissioner.
- Faced with the enormous task of registering 173 million mostly illiterate voters, he introduced the use of visual symbols for political parties—transforming a logistical challenge into a democratic milestone.
- In India, the ECI bears the crucial responsibility of ensuring that every eligible citizen, no matter how remote their location, can exercise their right to vote. As Winston Churchill aptly put it, “At the bottom of all tributes paid to democracy is the little man, walking into a little booth, with a little pencil, making a little cross on a little bit of paper…” His words serve as a powerful reminder that the legitimacy of any democracy ultimately hinges on protecting and upholding the sanctity of the vote
4. Is Voting a Fundamental right in India?
- The nature of the ‘right to vote’ in India has been a topic of legal and constitutional debate for decades. During the framing of the Constitution, both Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and K.T. Shah had advocated for its inclusion as a fundamental right.
- However, the Constituent Assembly’s Advisory Committee ultimately decided against this proposal. This position was later affirmed by the Supreme Court in the Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India case (2006), where a Constitution Bench ruled that the ‘right to elect’ is not a fundamental or constitutional right, but rather a statutory one derived from Section 62 of the Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951.
- Although a two-judge bench in Rajbala v. State of Haryana (2016) referred to voting as a constitutional right, the earlier and more authoritative decision in Kuldip Nayar remains the guiding precedent.
- Again, in the 2023 Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India case, the Supreme Court refrained from revisiting this issue, reaffirming that it had already been conclusively addressed in the Kuldip Nayar ruling.
- Justice Ajay Rastogi, however, in a dissenting opinion, argued that the right to vote stems from Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution (freedom of expression) and embodies the spirit of Article 21 (right to life and personal liberty).
- Despite his reasoning, this remains a minority viewpoint, and under current jurisprudence, voting continues to be classified as a statutory entitlement.
- Still, courts have consistently emphasised that, even if not fundamental in a legal sense, the right to vote is deeply embedded in the democratic framework of the country.
- It serves as a vital mechanism through which citizens participate in governance and decision-making, making it essential to the functioning and legitimacy of the Indian Republic.
- As philosopher John Dewey aptly observed, democracy extends beyond a governmental system—it represents a broader social and ethical ideal
5. Significance of accuracy of electoral roll
- The foundation of free and fair elections lies in the accuracy of electoral rolls, as mandated by the Representation of the People Act, 1950. When these rolls contain significant flaws—such as widespread omissions, inclusion of ineligible individuals, duplicate entries, or factual errors—it threatens the principle of “one person, one vote.”
- Such discrepancies open the door to impersonation, voter exclusion, or vote dilution, ultimately skewing the democratic verdict.
- To maintain the credibility of the electoral process, Section 21 of the 1950 Act grants the Election Commission (EC) the authority to compile and update electoral rolls as necessary.
- Although errors in voter lists are sometimes inevitable, the judiciary has consistently maintained that only major, systematic flaws that have a tangible impact on election results can call the validity of an election into question.
- Minor irregularities or isolated cases of disenfranchisement are not sufficient grounds for overturning results. Allegations of errors, such as those recently reported in Bihar, merit investigation.
- At the same time, it's important to recognise that cleansing voter rolls is essential—excluding a rightful voter weakens democracy, but so does allowing someone who is ineligible to remain on the list.
- Therefore, rather than obstructing the process, attention should be directed toward strengthening and refining it. The Supreme Court’s recommendation to accept a broader range of identity documents helps ensure that all legitimate voters retain their right to participate in elections.
- While the legal right to challenge or seek inclusion in the electoral rolls rests with individual citizens rather than political parties, the Supreme Court in Lakshmi Charan Sen v. A.K.M. Hassan Uzzaman (1985) emphasised that in a society with widespread illiteracy and limited political awareness, political parties have a responsibility to assist in ensuring that eligible voters are registered and ineligible names are removed.
- In a party-driven parliamentary system like India’s, such proactive engagement is essential for maintaining the credibility and integrity of elections
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Qualification for an Ordinary resident
Under Article 324 of the Constitution, the Election Commission (EC) acts as the constitutional authority responsible for overseeing and managing the electoral process. One of its fundamental responsibilities is the preparation of reliable electoral rolls. This task is carried out in accordance with Section 19 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, which stipulates that every Indian citizen who is at least 18 years old, ordinarily resides in a particular constituency, and is not otherwise disqualified, is eligible for registration as a voter. The term “ordinarily resident” refers to someone who has a genuine and continuous presence in a location, rather than a brief or temporary stay. For instance, a student residing in a hostel may not meet the criteria if their permanent residence is elsewhere and they intend to return there. However, simply being away from one’s usual place of residence temporarily does not disqualify someone from being considered an ordinary resident of that place. This standard helps prevent fake or misleading entries in the voter list and ensures that electors have a meaningful connection to the constituency they vote in, thereby reinforcing the principle of accountable and representative democracy |
6. Way forward
The controversy surrounding the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) in Bihar and the wider discussions on electoral reforms underscore a fundamental principle of democracy: the strength of India’s democratic system relies on electoral rolls that are precise, inclusive, and easy to access. As the Supreme Court prepares to continue hearings on July 28, it is essential for the Election Commission to carry out the revision exercise with both diligence and inclusivity, ensuring the process remains fair and credible.
At the same time, it is crucial for citizens to be made aware of their role in the process—by checking and correcting their voter information, they become active participants in safeguarding electoral accuracy. Protecting the right to vote goes beyond fulfilling a legal mandate; it is a collective democratic duty that demands alert institutions, engaged and informed citizens, and progressive legal frameworks
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For Prelims: Election Commission of India (ECI), Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951
For Mains: GS II - Polity and Governance
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Previous Year Questions
1. The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) system was used for the first time by the Election Commission of India in (UPSC CAPF 2019)
North Paravur Assembly Constituency, Kerala
B.Noksen Assembly Constituency, Nagaland
C.Mapusa Assembly Constituency, Goa
D.Nambol Assembly Constituency, Manipur
Answer (B)
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Source: The Hindu
GLOBAL BIOFUELS ALLIANCE
1. Context
On September 10, on the sidelines of the annual G-20 summit in New Delhi, an India-led grouping came together to give impetus to producing and using biofuels, an alternative to fossil fuels like petroleum and diesel. The grouping called the Global Biofuels Alliance (GBA), would attempt to bring countries together to co-develop, accelerate technological advances in production processes, and advocate for biofuels, particularly in the transport sector. The three founding members, India, the U.S., and Brazil, were joined by Argentina, Canada, Italy, and South Africa, who are also G-20 member countries.
2. What are Biofuels?
Biofuels are a category of renewable fuels produced from organic materials, often derived from living organisms or their byproducts. They are considered a more environmentally friendly alternative to traditional fossil fuels because they can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on non-renewable energy sources. There are several types of biofuels, including:
- Ethanol: Ethanol is a biofuel made primarily from crops like corn, sugarcane, or wheat. It can also be produced from cellulosic materials such as agricultural residues and woody biomass. Ethanol is commonly blended with gasoline to create ethanol-gasoline blends, such as E10 (10% ethanol) or E85 (85% ethanol), which are used as automotive fuels.
- Biodiesel: Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils (e.g., soybean, canola, or palm oil) or animal fats. It can be used as a direct replacement for diesel fuel or blended with traditional diesel fuel. Biodiesel is known for its lower greenhouse gas emissions and reduced air pollutants compared to conventional diesel.
- Biogas: Biogas is produced through the anaerobic digestion of organic matter, such as sewage, agricultural waste, and food scraps. It primarily consists of methane, which can be used for electricity generation, heating, and as a vehicle fuel.
- Hydrogen from Biomass: Biomass can also be used to produce hydrogen gas through processes like gasification or fermentation. This hydrogen can be used as a clean fuel for various applications.
- Biojet Fuel: Biojet fuel is specifically designed for use in aviation. It is produced from renewable feedstocks and meets the stringent specifications required for jet engines. It has the potential to reduce the carbon footprint of air travel.
- Algal Biofuels: Algae can be grown to produce oils that can be converted into biodiesel. Algal biofuels have the advantage of potentially higher yields and reduced competition for arable land compared to crop-based biofuels.
- Advanced and Cellulosic Biofuels: These biofuels are made from non-food feedstocks, such as agricultural residues, woody biomass, and non-food crops like switchgrass. They are considered more sustainable because they don't compete with food production and can be produced using waste materials.
Biofuels are seen as a way to mitigate the environmental impacts of fossil fuels, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote energy security. However, their production and use can also raise concerns, such as land use competition with food crops, deforestation, and potential impacts on biodiversity. Sustainable practices and responsible land use are important considerations in the production of biofuels to ensure their long-term benefits.
3. Biofuels an alternative to fossil fuels
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Biofuels vs. Sustainable Biofuels: Experts differentiate between biofuels and sustainable biofuels. Biofuels come from dedicated crops like sugarcane, corn, and soybean, while sustainable biofuels are derived from sources like agricultural waste, used cooking oil, and animal residues. The former is often called 1G ethanol (first-generation), and the latter is referred to as 2G (second-generation).
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Climate Change Concerns: With the acceleration of climate change, there are growing concerns about the impact of biofuel production on food security and the environment. The cultivation of crops for biofuels can lead to increased deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and competition for arable land.
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Land Use Pressure: More than half of the world's vegetated land is used for agriculture, putting tremendous pressure on available land resources. Agriculture is also a significant source of carbon emissions.
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GBA Focus on 2G Ethanol: The Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA) has made it clear that its primary focus is on the development of 2G ethanol. This second-generation biofuel is considered more sustainable because it utilizes sources like agricultural waste, reducing the need for additional land and potentially mitigating negative environmental impacts associated with biofuel production.
4. Renewed Focus on Biofuels
- Global crude oil supply disruptions due to events like the Ukraine war have prompted countries to seek alternatives to reduce import dependence on petrol and diesel.
- India, for example, imports 87% of its crude oil, leading to a significant expenditure in foreign reserves.
- Efforts are being made to decarbonize the transport sector, which accounts for a significant portion of global carbon emissions.
- Electric vehicle (EV) policies and legacy automakers entering the EV sector are part of these efforts.
- Some modes of transport like aviation, shipping, and long-haul trucking face challenges in reducing carbon emissions compared to self-driven cars or motorbikes.
- Experts suggest that 2G ethanol could be a valuable substitute in these harder-to-decarbonize sectors.
5. Role of Biofuels in the Energy Transition
- Most biofuels are blended with petrol or diesel, with countries like India blending about 10% of biofuels and planning to increase this percentage.
- Debates exist regarding the role of biofuels in the ongoing energy transition.
- Some experts emphasize accelerating EV adoption and developing alternatives like green hydrogen as the primary focus.
- Others argue that 2G ethanol can help soften the disruption by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while extending the life of internal combustion engines.
- This extension provides time for automakers to develop robust alternatives and offers economic benefits such as increased farmer incomes and job creation.
6. Global Biofuel Alliance
- The Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA) is an initiative by India as the G20 Chair. The Alliance intends to expedite the global uptake of biofuels through facilitating technology advancements, intensifying the utilization of sustainable biofuels, and shaping robust standard setting and certification through the participation of a wide spectrum of stakeholders.
- The alliance will also act as a central repository of knowledge and an expert hub. GBA aims to serve as a catalytic platform, fostering global collaboration for the advancement and widespread adoption of biofuels.
- The Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA) has three founding members.
- These three countries collectively produce 85% of global biofuels and consume approximately 81% of them.
U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard Amendment:
- The U.S. has announced amendments to its Renewable Fuel Standard to significantly increase biofuel production.
- The goal is to replace about 140,000 barrels per day of crude oil imports by 2025.
7. India's Biofuel Initiatives:
- India announced plans to establish 12 new refineries in 2018.
- The aim is to achieve a 20% ethanol blending rate in fuels by 2025.
- India's commitment to becoming net-zero by 2070 adds significance to these efforts.
Global Biofuel Demand Predictions:
- The International Energy Agency (IEA) predicts that about two-thirds of global biofuel demand will originate from three emerging economies: India, Brazil, and Indonesia.
- These countries have domestic feedstocks, production capacity, low production costs, and supportive policies to boost demand.
Decarbonization Impact:
- The extent to which these developments will accelerate the decarbonization of the energy sector remains to be seen.
- Increased biofuel production and adoption have the potential to reduce carbon emissions, particularly in transportation.
- The success of these initiatives will depend on various factors, including policy implementation and market dynamics.
8. Conclusion
The GBA's founding members, along with countries like the U.S. and India, are making significant efforts to boost biofuel production and use. These initiatives have the potential to contribute to decarbonizing the energy sector, especially in emerging economies, but their success will depend on effective implementation and market factors.
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For Prelims: Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA), G-20 summit, E10 (10% ethanol) or E85 (85% ethanol), Electric vehicle (EV), and International Energy Agency (IEA). For Mains: 1. Discuss the role of biofuels in the global transition to sustainable energy sources, considering their environmental impact, economic implications, and potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. (250 words). |
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Previous year Question 1. According to India's National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels? (UPSC 2020) 1. Cassava 2. Damaged wheat grains 3. Groundnut seeds 4. Horse gram 5. Rotten potatoes 6. Sugar beet Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2, 5 and 6 only B. 1, 3, 4 and 6 only C. 2, 3, 4 and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 Answer: A 2. It is possible to produce algae-based biofuels, but what is/are the likely limitation(s) of developing countries in promoting this industry? (UPSC 2017) 1. Production of algae-based biofuels is possible in seas only and not on continents. 2. Setting up and engineering the algae-based biofuels production requires a high level of expertise/technology until the construction is completed. 3. Economically viable production necessitates the setting up of large-scale facilities which may raise ecological and social concerns. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B 3. With reference to the Neem tree, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2014) 1. Neem oil can be used as a pesticide to control the proliferation of some species of insects and mites. 2. Neem seeds are used in the manufacture of biofuels and hospital detergents. 3. Neem oil has applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: C |
Source: The Hindu
GINI COEFFICIENT
1.Context
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Order the Population:
- Sort the population by income or wealth from the poorest to the richest.
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Plot the Lorenz Curve:
- On the x-axis, plot the cumulative percentage of the population.
- On the y-axis, plot the cumulative percentage of income or wealth.
- The Lorenz curve typically starts at (0,0) and ends at (100,100).
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Calculate the Area Under the Lorenz Curve:
- The area under the Lorenz curve is denoted as A.
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Calculate the Area Under the Line of Perfect Equality:
- The line of perfect equality (where everyone has the same income) is a 45-degree line from (0,0) to (100,100).
- The area under this line is denoted as A + B, where B is the area between the Lorenz curve and the line of perfect equality.
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Compute the Gini Coefficient:
- The Gini coefficient is calculated as the ratio of the area between the line of perfect equality and the Lorenz curve (B) to the total area under the line of perfect equality (A + B).
- Mathematically, it is expressed as: Gini coefficient=BA+B\text{Gini coefficient} = \frac{B}{A + B}
- Alternatively, it can be calculated as: Gini coefficient=1−2A\text{Gini coefficient} = 1 - 2A (since A + B = 0.5 if the axes are scaled from 0 to 1).
4.What are the socio-economic challenges faced by different groups in India?
India, with its diverse population and complex socio-economic fabric, faces a myriad of socio-economic challenges that vary significantly across different groups. Here are some key challenges:
Caste-Based Inequalities:
- Despite affirmative action policies, Dalits and SCs often face discrimination in education, employment, and access to public services. Social ostracism and violence against these groups remain significant issues.
- Indigenous communities or Adivasis face displacement from their ancestral lands due to industrial projects, lack of access to quality education and healthcare, and underrepresentation in political and administrative positions.
Economic Disparities:
- There is a wide gap between the rich and the poor. A small percentage of the population controls a large portion of the country’s wealth, leading to skewed economic opportunities and resources.
- Rural areas suffer from inadequate infrastructure, lower educational and employment opportunities, and poorer healthcare facilities compared to urban areas.
Gender Inequality:
- Women in India face barriers in education, employment, and healthcare. Issues like gender-based violence, wage disparity, and lack of political representation persist. In rural areas, traditional norms often restrict women's mobility and participation in the workforce.
- These groups face social stigma, discrimination in employment and education, and inadequate legal protections.
Religious Minorities:
- Often face socio-economic disadvantages, including lower levels of education and higher rates of poverty. Communal violence and discrimination in housing and employment are also significant challenges.
- While some religious minorities fare better in socio-economic terms, they can still face discrimination and targeted violence.
Regional Disparities:
- ortheast India: This region suffers from underdevelopment, insurgency, and lack of connectivity with the rest of the country. Ethnic conflicts and political instability further exacerbate socio-economic issues.
- States like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Odisha: These states lag in key development indicators such as literacy rates, health services, and per capita income compared to more developed states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
Educational Inequality:
- Significant disparities exist in access to quality education between urban and rural areas, and among different socio-economic groups. Government schools often lack infrastructure and qualified teachers, especially in rural areas.
- High dropout rates among marginalized groups, particularly girls, and children from SC/ST communities, limit their future employment opportunities.
Health Disparities:
- Rural areas and marginalized communities often lack access to basic healthcare facilities. Issues like malnutrition, maternal and child mortality, and communicable diseases are more prevalent in these areas.
- The quality of healthcare services varies widely, with private hospitals providing better care than underfunded public hospitals.
Employment Challenges:
- High rates of unemployment, particularly among the youth and women. Many are employed in the informal sector with no job security or benefits.
- A mismatch between the skills provided by the education system and the needs of the job market.
- Farmers face issues like unpredictable weather patterns, water scarcity, and poor access to modern agricultural technologies. This is compounded by debt and inadequate government support.
- Major cities suffer from severe air and water pollution, impacting the health and quality of life of urban residents.
- Lack of proper roads, electricity, and internet connectivity in rural areas hampers economic growth and access to services.
- Rapid urbanization has led to the growth of slums with inadequate housing, sanitation, and basic amenities.
- Addressing these socio-economic challenges requires targeted policies and programs that consider the unique needs and circumstances of each group. Comprehensive measures focusing on inclusive growth, social justice, and equitable resource distribution are essential for fostering a more equal and prosperous society in India.
5.What measures should be taken to ensure inclusive development and the upliftment of each section of society?
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For Prelims : Indian Polity
For mains : GS II-Governance, Constitution and Polity
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Previous Year Questions
1.The Gini coefficient is a measure of (IB ACIO Grade-II Official Paper-I 2015)
A.Rodent population
B. Migration rate of Guiness nationals
C. Income inequality
D.Ratio of coinage to currency note
Answer (C)
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Source : Indianexpress
STARLINK DEVICES
1. Context
Elon Musk-owned Starlink has received the last remaining regulatory clearance from the government, paving the way for the company to start offering satcom services in India.
2. What is Starlink?
- Starlink operates a large network of low Earth orbit satellites to provide broadband internet with fast speeds and low latency. This enables users not only to access essential services but also to stream content, play online games, make video calls, and engage in other data-intensive activities, as stated by the company.
- It is widely used in remote areas, on sea vessels, in disaster-hit zones, and in regions where internet access is limited or controlled by authoritarian governments.
- The Starlink system consists of thousands of satellites orbiting Earth at approximately 550 km. While it offers global coverage, SpaceX notes that it is not permitted to provide services in certain regions
- Starlink is a satellite internet constellation project developed by SpaceX, the private aerospace company founded by Elon Musk. The project aims to provide global internet coverage, particularly to remote or underserved regions that lack reliable broadband infrastructure.
- Starlink uses a network of low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, which are placed much closer to the Earth compared to traditional geostationary satellites. This proximity allows Starlink to offer high-speed, low-latency internet services
3. Key Features of Starlink
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Global Coverage: Starlink aims to provide internet access anywhere on Earth, especially to rural or remote locations where ground-based internet services are unavailable or expensive.
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Low Earth Orbit Satellites: Unlike traditional satellite internet, which uses satellites in geostationary orbit (22,000 miles above Earth), Starlink’s satellites orbit at altitudes between 340 km and 1,200 km. This reduces latency (the time it takes for data to travel between the user and the satellite).
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High-Speed Internet: Starlink provides broadband-level speeds, typically ranging from 50 Mbps to 150 Mbps, with some users reporting speeds of up to 200 Mbps. Latency can be as low as 20-40 milliseconds, which is comparable to or better than traditional cable internet.
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Affordable Equipment: To access the Starlink service, users need a dish (referred to as the "Starlink Kit") that includes a phased array antenna, a Wi-Fi router, and cables. The setup is designed to be easy and self-installable.
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Ongoing Expansion: As of 2024, Starlink continues to launch additional satellites to expand its coverage and improve service reliability
4. Can Starlink internet be controlled?
- International borders are not rigid, and refining satellite internet coverage to match these borders with exact precision is challenging. This is further complicated by the fact that many borders are disputed or ambiguous, while satellites overhead continuously transmit encrypted signals.
- This encryption serves to prevent interference from militants or other malicious entities attempting to hack into the service. The central concern is whether militants in regions like Manipur could effectively access Starlink satellite internet in India.
- If these [Starlink] devices were purchased from outside India, by any means, they could still be used, as the device would then be authorized.
- The issue is whether the device has a location-tracking feature. If you buy a [Starlink] terminal in the U.S. and bring it to India, it might not work due to the change in geographical location—unless the terminal has an inbuilt location identifier."
5. Latest Controversy
- On December 16, the Spear Corps of the Indian Army posted photos on Elon Musk-owned X, showing guns, ammunition, and homemade mortars seized by army and police units in Manipur.
- Among the items, X users noticed a small satellite device and a router, which had the SpaceX logo. In response to a claim by an X user that Mr. Musk’s technology was being used by terrorists, the billionaire refuted the accusation, stating, "This is false.
- Starlink satellite beams are turned off over India." The Starlink device also displayed the markings "RPF/PLA," referring to a Myanmar-based Meitei extremist group banned in India. According to Starlink's website and coverage map, the service availability in Myanmar is not listed.
- This is not the first instance of SpaceX facing controversy in India. Last month, the Andaman and Nicobar islands police apprehended smugglers with over 6,000 kg of methamphetamine and a Starlink device allegedly used for communication and navigation, despite the service being banned in Indian waters. Additionally, in August, Starlink equipment was found being sold on the B2B platform IndiaMART
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For Prelims: Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites, Starlink
For Mains: GS II & III - Governance, Cybersecurity and National Security
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Source: The Hindu
CRITICAL MINERALS
1. Context
Yet, India needs to be strategic when engaging in such groupings, to understand how it can balance international partnerships without limiting its national interests and domestic priorities
2. What are Critical Minerals?
Critical minerals are raw materials that are essential for economic and national security, but whose supply may be at risk due to geological scarcity, geopolitical issues, trade policy, or other factors
Critical minerals are typically defined by governments or organizations based on their importance to the economy and the potential risks to their supply
- Rare Earth Elements (REEs): neodymium, dysprosium, terbium
- Lithium
- Cobalt
- Graphite
- Gallium
- Indium
- Tungsten
- Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)
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3. Why are critical minerals important?
- Minerals such as copper, lithium, nickel, and cobalt, along with certain rare earth elements, are considered critical due to their essential role in the global transition to greener and cleaner energy sources.
- According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the demand for lithium surged by 30% in 2023, with nickel, cobalt, graphite, and rare earth elements experiencing growth between 8% and 15%, collectively valued at $325 billion.
- The IEA's Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2024 report indicates that achieving the world's goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius within a net-zero emissions framework will necessitate a significant increase in demand for these minerals.
- By 2040, copper demand is projected to rise by 50%, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth elements by 100%, graphite by 300%, and lithium by 800%, which is vital for battery production.
- Developing sustainable supply chains for these minerals is therefore crucial. In India, the absence of readily available reserves has led to complete import dependence for minerals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel.
4. What is being done to spur production?
- Although India possesses natural reserves of several critical minerals, they remain largely unexplored and untapped. For example, despite holding 11% of the world's ilmenite deposits, which is the primary source of titanium dioxide used in numerous applications, India still imports a billion dollars' worth of titanium dioxide annually, as noted by former Mines Secretary Vivek Bharadwaj.
- Additionally, the "lucky" discovery of lithium reserves in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) while exploring for limestone has raised hopes for achieving some level of self-sufficiency in lithium. Announced in February as India's first lithium find, these reserves are estimated at 5.9 million tonnes, prompting the government to expedite their extraction.
- Recognizing the risks of relying on a limited number of countries for these minerals and their processing, the central government amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 in August 2023 to allow mining concessions for 24 critical and strategic minerals.
5. Way Forward
The list of what's considered "critical" can vary by country and change over time based on technological developments and geopolitical situations. The management of critical minerals is an ongoing challenge that requires balancing economic needs, environmental concerns, and geopolitical realities
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For Prelims: Critical minerals, Ministry of Mines, carbon emissions, cleaner energy, lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, tin, copper, Selenium, Cadmium, Centre of Excellence on critical minerals, Australia's CSIRO, Geological Survey of India,
For Mains:
1. What are critical minerals? Discuss their significance for a country's economic development and national security. Explain how the identification of critical minerals helps in reducing import dependency and ensuring resource security. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the mineral resources of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2010)
Mineral 90%Natural sources in
1. Copper Jharkhand
2. Nickel Orissa
3. Tungsten Kerala
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
2. Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called 'rare earth metals.' Why? (UPSC 2012)
1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export.
2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
3. In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller's Organization (CCO)? (UPSC 2022)
1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India.
2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks.
3. It hears any objection to the Government's notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas.
4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 3 and 4 only C. 1 and 2 only D. 1, 2 and 4
Answer: A
4. Which of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the (UPSC 2020)
A. long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emission in a given year.
B. requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels.
C. efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live in a new place.
D. contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.
Answer: A
5. Direction: It consists of two statements, one labelled as ‘Statement (I)’ and the others as ‘Statement (II)’. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the answer using the codes given below: (UPSC ESE 2018)
Statement (I): Green energy refers to one which does not harm the ecosystem of planet earth. Statement (II): All renewable energy is green energy.
A. Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) individually true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I)
B. Both statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true, but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I)
C. Statement (I) is true, but Statement (II) is false
D. Statement (I) is false, but Statement (II) is true
Answer: C
6. Which type of battery is used in the recently launched world's first fully electric cargo ship by change? (Delhi Police Constable 2017)
A. Lead Acid B. Manganese C. Lithium ion D. Nickel metal hydride
Answer: C
7. White gold is an alloy of (UPSC CAPF 2022)
A. gold, nickel and palladium
B. gold, cobalt and palladium
C. gold, titanium and platinum
D. gold, magnesium and palladium
Answer: A
8. Graphene is frequently in news recently. What is its importance? (UPSC 2012)
1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity.
2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far.
3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency.
4. It can be used as 'conducting electrodes' required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs. Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 and 4 only C. 1, 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: C
9. Graphite and diamonds are__________. (WBCS Prelims 2020)
A. isotopes B. isomers C. isotones D. allotropes
Answer: D
10. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)
1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.
2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment. 3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: D
11. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India? (UPSC 2013)
1. Arsenic
2. Sorbitol
3. Fluoride
4. Formaldehyde
5. Uranium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2, 4 and 5 only C. 1, 3 and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Answer: C
12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/are the advantage/advantages of the bioremediation technique? (UPSC 2017)
1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature.
2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms.
3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
13. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste? (UPSC 2013)
1. Beryllium
2. Cadmium
3. Chromium
4. Heptachlor
5. Mercury
6. Lead
7. Plutonium
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
A. 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only B. 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
C. 2, 4, 5 and 7 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
Answer: B
14. When was the Geological Survey of India (GSI) of India founded? (UPRVUNL Staff Nurse 2021)
A. 1851 B. 1951 C. 1871 D. 1931
Answer: A
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Source: The Hindu
