FLASH FLOODS

2. What is a Flood

• Flood is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits, especially over what is normally dry land.
• Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry. 
• Floods can happen during heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when the snow melts quickly, or when dams or levees break. 
• Damaging flooding may happen with only a few inches of water, or it may cover a house to the rooftop. 
• Floods can occur within minutes or over a long period, and may last days, weeks, or longer. 
• Floods are the most widespread of all weather-related natural disasters.

3. Common causes of floods can be divided into the factors triggering them.

These factors include -

• Meteorological factors

• Physical factors

• Human factors

 3.1 Meteorological Factors

The natural causes of floods are discussed below -

• Heavy Rainfall: The season of monsoon
• Cloud Burst: Cloud Burst occurs due to intense precipitation in a short duration which can sometimes be accompanied by hail and storms and can cause a flood.

• Climate Change: According to the International Panel for Climate Change, the rainfall intensity, duration and frequency are going to increase in the future.
• Skewed Rainfall Pattern: 80% of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months
• Trans-National Rivers: The fact that some of the rivers (like the Brahmaputra, many tributaries of Ganga) causing damage in India to originate in neighbouring countries, adds another complex dimension to the problem
• Cyclone & Heavy rainfall

3.2. Physical Factors.

• Insufficient Drainage Management: Improper planning of the drainage system of an area can cause excess water due to heavy rainfall to get stuck and lead to a flood.

• Catchment Area: Catchment area is an area from where the rainfall water flows into a river. This can be a lake or reservoir. During monsoon, when excess water exceeds the limited holding capacity of the catchment area, it leads to floods.

3.3. Human Factor

• Siltation: Siltation refers to the flow of silt and sediments in the riverbed. As particles remain suspended in the river and accumulated in the riverbed, it disrupts the flow of the river, causing a flood.

• Improper Agricultural Practices: If farmers are not cautious of the effects of farming practices meaning if they leave the waste material in the river or cannot handle water management properly, it can lead to a flood. 

• Deforestation: Deforestation is one of the major human causes of floods. Trees act like a sponge that helps to hold soil and water and prevent flooding. As trees are being cut down at a fast pace to make way for urbanisation to grow, more water runs towards a river during heavy rainfall. As a result, a flood occurs.

• Collapse of Dams: Dams are built to store water and provide water to people. As dams are human-made, these can be worn out and subsequently collapse causing floods. Also, if heavy rainfall sustains for a long time, State Governments often declare to open dam gates which can lead to a dangerous flood.- Temples of Modern India to Water Bombs

• Unplanned Development

• Neglect of Pre-Disaster Planning

 4.Types of Flood

• Coastal Floods: Coastal floods occur when strong winds or storms move towards the coast during high tide.

• Flash Floods: Flash floods usually occur in hilly areas in limited space. Here the sudden heavy rainfall or snow thaws are the causes of flooding. The fast-moving torrent of Flash floods can sweep large objects such as cars, rocks and everything that comes in their path.

• River Floods: River floods occur due to the inflow of water from heavy rainfall, snowmelt or powerful storms.

• Pluvial Floods: Pluvial floods occur in areas that cannot hold rainwater and end up forming puddles and ponds. eg- rural areas.

• Urban Floods: When the drainage system of urban areas fails to absorb rainwater.

The impacts of floods affect both individuals and communities and have social-environmental consequences. 

• Human Loss and Property Loss: Every year, millions of people become homeless and washed away due to floods.

• Spread of Communicable Diseases: Waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis, and leptospirosis spread in flood-affected areas. Floods also lead to vector-borne diseases, transmitted through parasites and pathogens such as a mosquito. As a result, the health of flood victims deteriorates.

• Destruction of Crops: Every year, floods destroy a large number of crops.

• Loss of Livestock: Like humans, livestock also get displaced during floods and dies due to the loss of their habitats.

• Disruption of Communication Link and Transportation: Flood causes damage to transportation links such as bridges, rail, power plants etc., thus causing communication disruption in those areas.

• Economic and Social Disruption: The economy comes to a standstill as people are forced to move to another place, and revival of this situation takes time.

Approaches to dealing with floods may be any one or a combination of the following available options:

• Attempts to modify the flood
• Attempts to modify the susceptibility to flooding damage
• Attempts to modify the loss burden
• Bearing the loss.
• The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been an attempt to modify the flood in the form of physical (structural) measures to prevent the floodwaters from reaching potential damage centres and modify susceptibility to flooding damage through early warning systems.

6.1 Structural measures

The following structural measures are generally adopted for flood protection:

• Embankments, flood walls, sea walls
• Dams and reservoirs
• Natural detention basins
• Channel improvement
• Drainage improvement
• Diversion of flood waters.

6.2 Non-structural measures

Non-structural measures include:

• Flood forecasting and warning
• Floodplain zoning
• Flood fighting
• Floodproofing
• Flood insurance.

7.What are Flash Floods

• Flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods because they combine the destructive power of a flood with incredible speed. 
• Flash floods occur when heavy rainfall exceeds the ability of the ground to absorb it. They also occur when water fills normally dry creeks or streams or enough water accumulates for streams to overtop their banks, causing rapid rises of water in a short amount of time. 
• They can happen within minutes of the causative rainfall, limiting the time available to warn and protect the public.

 8. Status of Floods in India

8.1 NDRF Report

• 40 million hectares (10% of the land mass) in India are prone to floods.
• On average every year, 5 million hectares of land are affected, 1600 lives are lost and more than Rs. 1,800 crores is incurred.

8.2 Statistics

• Between 1970 and 2004, 3 floods occurred per year on average. However, between 2005 and 2019, the yearly average rose to 11. 19 districts were affected annually on an average until 2005. After 2005, the number jumped to 55.
• 2017 analysis suggests that 4.48 million Indians are exposed to riverine floods, the highest in the world.

9. What areas are at risk from flash floods?

• Densely populated areas are at high risk for flash floods. The construction of buildings, highways, driveways, and parking lots increases runoff by reducing the amount of rain absorbed by the ground. This runoff increases the flash flood potential.
• Areas near rivers are at risk from floods. Embankments, known as levees, are often built along rivers and are used to prevent high water from flooding bordering land. 
• Dam failures can send a sudden destructive surge of water downstream. 
• Mountains and steep hills produce rapid runoff, which causes streams to rise quickly. 
• Saturated soils can also lead to rapid flash flooding. 
• Sometimes the thunderstorms that produce heavy rainfall may happen well upstream from the impacted area, making it harder to recognize a dangerous situation.
• Very intense rainfall can produce flooding even on dry soil.
• Additional high-risk locations include recent burn areas in mountains and urban areas from pavement and roofs which enhance runoff.
• Ice jams and snowmelt can help cause flash floods. A deep snowpack increases runoff produced by melting snow. Heavy spring rains falling on melting snowpacks can produce flash flooding.

10. The impact of floods in India

11. Impact of flood on wildlife

12. Government actions regarding flood management

12.1.The National Flood Management Commission

• Launched in 1954
• Different structural and non-structural methods have been applied by various states under it.

• To evolve a scientific, integrated and coordinated approach to flood control
• It recommended Flood plain zoning and management to regulate human activities.

• It was set up to review the impact of the recommendations of Rashtriya Barh Aayog.
• It recommended large flood moderation projects, following up the enactment of flood plain zoning.

12.4.National Water Policy, 2002

• It recommended
• Basin-wise plan for flood control and management.
• Flood control to be given overriding consideration in reservoir regulation policy.
• More emphasis on non-structural measures.
• Strict regulation of settlements and economic activities in flood plains.

12.5. K. Mittal Committee, 2003
Its main recommendations were

• Afforestation and treatment of catchment area, right land-use practices and others.
• In the river itself a construction of suitable hydraulic structures that may trap silt.
• Embankment along the aggrading river should be constructed, only after proper studies are made on its behaviour especially due to sedimentation load and resultant morphological changes.

FINANCIAL ACTION TASK FORCE (FATF)

 

1. Context

A dual-use equipment seized by India from a Pakistan-bound merchant vessel in 2020 is linked to Islamabad’s National Development Complex, which is involved in the country’s missile development programme, a new report by the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), the global anti-terror financing watchdog

2. Financial Action Task Force (FATF)

• The FATF is an inter-governmental body that sets international standards seeking to prevent international financial crimes that aid terrorism. The FATF  was established in July 1989 by a G-7 summit in Paris to examine and develop measures to combat money laundering.
• The FATF currently comprises 37 member jurisdictions and two regional organizations European Commission and Gulf Cooperation Council, representing most major financial centers in all parts of the globe. India has been a member of the FATF since 2010. India is also a member of its regional partners, the Asia Pacific Group (APG) and the Eurasian Group (EAG).
• Its secretariat is located at the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) headquarters in Paris.

3. Mandate of FATF

After the 9/11 attacks, the FATF in October 2001 expanded its mandate to incorporate efforts to combat terrorist financing. In April 2012, it added efforts to counter the financing of the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. The FATF has developed the FATF recommendations, or FATF standards, which ensure a coordinated global response to prevent organized crime, corruption, and terrorism.

4. FATF Lists

4.1 Grey List

Countries that are considered safe heaven for supporting terror funding and money laundering are put on the FATF Grey list. This inclusion serves as a warning to the country that it may enter the Black list.

Recently Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, and Tanzania are added to the Grey List.

4.2 Black List

Countries known as Non-cooperative countries or Territories are put on the Black list. These countries support Terror funding and Money Laundering activities. The FATF revises the blacklist regularly, adding or deleting entries.

Currently, Iran and the Democratic people's Republic of Korea are under High-risk jurisdiction or Black list. Myanmar was added to the list.

Moved Myanmar is from the "grey list" taken by the military junta since they overthrew the government in a coup last February.

5. Why Pakistan is removed from the Grey List?

• Deliberations of the FATF are made in complete secrecy, and decisions are meant to be made strictly on the basis of technicalities and procedure, so the greylisting of Pakisthan has to be seen in the totality of the process and measures it has undertaken.
• Pakistan was also on the "grey list" from 2012-2015 when FATF mandated many steps. Since 2018, it has been handed two action plans, comprising 34 points (27+7), asking Islamabad to bring in laws on money laundering, and anti-terror laws in line with international requirements.
• Pakistan also had to maintain a database of terror groups operating on its soil and the actions taken against them.

6. Benefits for Pakistan

• If removed from the grey list Pakistan would essentially receive a reputational boost and get a clean bill of health from the international community on terror financing. 
• There is research that suggests grey listing negatively impacts the relationship of the concerned countries with the international funders including Banks and financial institutions that take note of FATF rankings as well as existing potential overseas investors in those countries.

7. Indias Response

• India is a member, and hence party to all FATF decisions that are made by consensus. As a result, it also agreed to the decision to take Pakistan off the list, conceding in a statement that due to the FATF, Pakistan had been "forced to take" some action against well-known terrorists", including those involved in the Mumbai 26/11 attacks.
• The Narendra Modi Government is preparing for India's turn at FATF scrutiny or MER process, set to begin in early 2023, which it hopes will be a smooth process. In July this year while introducing the Weapons of Mass Destruction and their Delivery Systems (Prohibition of Unlawful Activities) Amendment. 
• External Minister S. Jaishankar told parliament that India had to take its international commitments on WMD seriously, both at the UN Security Council, and FATF recommendations which had "mandated provisions against financing in relation to WMDs.

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: FATF, Grey list, Black List, UN Security Council, Weapons of mass destruction, Asia Pacific Group (APG), Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and the Eurasian Group (EAG). For Mains: 1. Discuss the mandate of FAFT on Terror Financing and explain the benefits of Pakistan after removing it from the grey list.

 

Source: The Hindu

 

IRAN-ISRAEL

 

 

1. Context

 

As the latest Israel-Iran conflict crossed the one-week mark, the Indian government began to bring back Indian citizens from both countries, fearing a further escalation. In a sudden attack on June 13, Israel launched strikes on Iranian nuclear installations, assassinated top generals, and bombed several cities across the country. Iran’s response has been more robust than expected, as it too has launched barrage after barrage of ballistic missiles on military targets and research facilities in Israel.

 

 

2. History of Iran-Israel

 

The history of Iran-Israel relations is complex, marked by periods of cooperation and deep hostility, shaped by political, ideological, and strategic developments.

Early Relations (Pre-1979)

• Before the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Iran and Israel maintained a cordial and strategic relationship under the Pahlavi dynasty, particularly during the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's reign.
• Iran, under the Shah, recognized Israel in 1948 as one of the first Muslim-majority countries to do so, driven by shared interests against Arab nationalism and the Soviet influence in the region.
• During the Cold War, Iran supplied Israel with oil, and trade flourished, including the operation of the Eilat-Ashkelon pipeline, a joint venture. Military cooperation, such as the secretive Project Flower (1977-79) to develop a missile, also occurred.
• This alliance was bolstered by Israel’s support during World War II, when Iran provided refuge to Jews fleeing Nazi persecution, a historical bond some trace back 2,500 years to Persian-Jewish ties.

Shift After the 1979 Revolution

• The Iranian Revolution, led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, marked a dramatic turning point. The establishment of the Islamic Republic brought an anti-Israel ideology, rooted in opposition to Zionism and support for the Palestinian cause.
• Iran severed diplomatic ties with Israel, nationalized the oil industry, and began supporting groups like Hezbollah and Palestinian factions (e.g., Hamas) as proxies against Israel.
• The 1979 U.S. Embassy hostage crisis and Iran’s vote against Israel’s UN admission in 1949 further solidified this stance. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) saw Israel secretly supplying arms to Iran, a pragmatic move despite the ideological rift, though this did not mend relations.

Escalation into Proxy and Direct Conflict

Since the 1980s, the relationship evolved into a proxy war, with Iran backing militias (e.g., Hezbollah in Lebanon, Houthis in Yemen) to encircle Israel, while Israel conducted covert operations against Iran’s nuclear program and regional influence. Key events include:

• 2000s-2010s: Israel’s alleged cyberattacks (e.g., Stuxnet in 2010) and assassinations of Iranian nuclear scientists (e.g., Mohsen Fakhrizadeh in 2020) aimed to curb Iran’s nuclear ambitions, which Israel views as an existential threat. Iran, claiming its program is peaceful, retaliated through proxy attacks.
• 2024: Direct confrontations escalated with Iran launching ballistic missiles at Israel in April and October, following Israeli strikes on Iranian targets in Syria. The killing of Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh in Tehran in July 2024 and Hezbollah’s Fuad Shukr heightened tensions.
• 2025: On June 13, Israel launched a major attack on Iran, targeting nuclear and military sites, killing senior figures like IRGC commander Hossein Salami. Iran retaliated with missile barrages, marking the most intense direct conflict to date, with significant casualties reported on both sides by June 18, 2025

 

3. Latest Updates on the live war

 

 

Khamenei's Warning to the US:

 

Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a stern warning to the United States against any military intervention in Iran. He stated that any US strike would lead to "serious, irreparable consequences" and that Iran would not accept an "imposed war" or "peace," nor would it surrender. This warning came in response to US President Donald Trump's demand for Iran's "unconditional surrender" and his assertion that the US had "complete and total control of the skies over Iran." Khamenei's statements underscore Iran's defiance amidst escalating tensions and military threats

Israel Claims 40 Sites Hit:

 

On the same day, Israel announced that its Air Force fighter jets had completed a wave of strikes against military targets in western Iran. According to an Israeli army post on X, approximately 25 fighter jets attacked more than 40 missile infrastructures aimed at Israel, missile storage sites, and military operatives of the Iranian regime. Earlier reports also indicated that Israel claimed to have bombed at least two nuclear centrifuge production facilities in Iran, including the main nuclear facility in Tehran

 

4. What is India’s stake in and stand on the Iran-Israel conflict?

 

India maintains a neutral stance on the Iran-Israel conflict, prioritizing diplomacy, regional stability, and its strategic interests amid the ongoing escalation. Here’s an overview of India’s stakes and position:

India’s Stakes

India’s economic and strategic interests are significantly tied to both Iran and Israel, making the conflict a critical concern:

• Energy Security: India imports over 80% of its crude oil from West Asia, with Iran historically being a key supplier despite reduced volumes due to U.S. sanctions. The current conflict has spiked oil prices (Brent crude nearing $78 per barrel), threatening inflation and India’s current account deficit. The potential closure of the Strait of Hormuz, through which nearly two-thirds of India’s oil and half its LNG pass, poses a severe risk.
• Trade and Connectivity: Iran’s Chabahar port, developed with a $370 million Indian investment, is vital for trade with Central Asia and Afghanistan, bypassing Pakistan. The International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC), involving Iran and Russia, could face disruptions. Trade with Israel ($1.6 billion imports, $2.1 billion exports in 2024-25) and Iranian trade ($1.4 billion exports, $441 million imports) are also at risk.
• Indian Diaspora: Approximately 18,000 Indians in Israel and 10,000 in Iran are vulnerable, prompting evacuation advisories and embassy support.
• Defense and Economy: Israel is a top defense supplier (drones, missile systems), while companies like Sun Pharma and Adani Group have stakes in Israel. A prolonged conflict could disrupt these sectors and raise freight costs, impacting India’s $120 billion merchandise trade with Europe and the U.S.

 

5.  India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)

 

 

The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) is a strategic multi-modal connectivity initiative launched during the G20 Summit in New Delhi on September 9, 2023, through a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed by India, the United States, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), France, Germany, Italy, and the European Union. It aims to enhance economic development by fostering connectivity and integration between Asia, the Persian Gulf, and Europe, serving as a counter to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

Structure and Objectives

• Corridors: IMEC comprises two main segments:
  • Eastern Corridor: Connects India to the Arabian Gulf via ports, railways, and roads.
  • Northern Corridor: Links the Gulf to Europe through rail and maritime networks.
• Infrastructure: The project includes railways, ship-to-rail networks, road transport, electricity cables, high-speed data cables, and hydrogen pipelines to facilitate trade, energy, and digital connectivity.
• Goals: It seeks to reduce transit times by 40% and costs by 30% compared to the Suez Canal route, boost trade, enhance supply chain resilience, and promote green energy (e.g., solar power, green hydrogen) and digital integration

 

6. Israel-Hamas conflict 

 

 Israel-Hamas conflict, which escalated significantly following Hamas's attack on October 7, 2023, remains a critical issue in the Middle East, though it has been overshadowed by the recent Iran-Israel conflict that began on June 13, 2025. Here’s an overview based on available information and critical analysis:

 

• Origin: The conflict intensified with Hamas’s surprise assault on October 7, 2023, killing over 1,200 Israelis, mostly civilians, and taking 251 hostages. Israel responded with a declaration of war, launching airstrikes and a ground invasion of Gaza, aiming to dismantle Hamas and free hostages. A brief ceasefire in late January to early March 2025 included hostage exchanges but collapsed after failed negotiations, resuming hostilities in March 2025.
• Current Status: The Gaza war has seen over 54,000 Palestinian deaths and 1,700 Israeli deaths by early June 2025, according to official figures, though these numbers are contested. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) reported killing Hamas leaders like Yahya Sinwar and Mohammed Deif, but U.S. intelligence suggests Hamas has recruited replacements, indicating resilience. The conflict’s focus has shifted somewhat due to Israel’s Operation Rising Lion against Iran, launched on June 12, 2025, targeting Iranian nuclear and military sites, which has drawn international attention away from Gaza.
• Humanitarian Crisis: Nearly 90% of Gaza’s 2.3 million population has been displaced, with acute food insecurity and no functioning hospitals reported. Israeli evacuation orders cover 80% of Gaza, and aid distribution sites have faced deadly incidents, with dozens killed by Israeli fire in recent weeks, as reported by Palestinian health officials. The blockade and destruction of infrastructure have fueled accusations of war crimes from human rights groups

 

7. Way Forward

 

 

The Iran-Israel conflict, now in its sixth day following Israel’s Operation Rising Lion on June 13, 2025, has escalated into direct military confrontation, with devastating airstrikes, significant casualties, and threats to nuclear and energy infrastructure. This escalation has overshadowed the ongoing Israel-Hamas conflict, where Gaza remains a humanitarian crisis zone with over 54,000 Palestinian and 1,700 Israeli deaths since October 7, 2023, and no immediate resolution in sight. The broader regional instability threatens trade routes, energy supplies, and diplomatic relations, drawing in global powers like the U.S., Russia, and China, each with competing interests

 

For Prelims: Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)   For Mains: GS II - International relations

 

 

Source: Aljazeera

 

 

NATIONAL QUANTUM MISSION

 

 

1. Context

 

On June 16, the Ministry of Defence said in a statement that IIT-Delhi scientists together with the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) demonstrated quantum communication over a distance of more than one km in free space.

 

2. National Quantum Mission

 

• The National Quantum Mission (NQM) is an initiative launched by the Government of India in 2023 to advance research and development in quantum science and technology. With a focus on four core areas—Quantum Computing, Quantum Communication, Quantum Sensing & Metrology, and Quantum Materials & Devices—the mission seeks to position India as a global leader in quantum innovation.
• The mission is funded with an allocation of ₹6,003.65 crore over a span of eight years (2023-2031) and aims to drive both scientific breakthroughs and industrial applications. A key feature of the mission is the establishment of four Thematic Hubs (T-Hubs), each dedicated to one of the key areas, to address specific research objectives and challenges in quantum technologies.
• The NQM is expected to support a range of applications, from secure communication systems to advanced computing, with the potential to transform fields like healthcare, defense, and cryptography

3. What is Quantum technology?

 

• Quantum technology refers to a broad range of technological innovations rooted in the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics. Scientists discovered that classical physics—including Newtonian mechanics, electromagnetism, and classical thermodynamics—could not fully explain several important phenomena at the atomic and subatomic levels, such as wave-particle duality, quantum superposition, quantum entanglement, and Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle.
• This gap in understanding led to the creation of quantum mechanics, a new branch of physics that transformed how we perceive the quantum world. Over time, advancements in quantum mechanics were applied to develop real-world devices.
• These theories and devices collectively form what we now refer to as quantum technology.
• Specifically, quantum technology harnesses quantum mechanical principles, such as superposition, quantum entanglement, and interference, to enable more efficient large-scale computations. Let’s explore these concepts in more detail

 

4. Core Principles of quantum mechanics

 

• (a) Superposition: In classical computing, the basic unit of data is a ‘bit,’ which can have a value of either ‘0’ or ‘1.’ A bit is limited to these two possible states. In contrast, quantum computing uses a ‘qubit’ (quantum bit) as its fundamental unit. Unlike classical bits, qubits can exist in a superposition of both ‘0’ and ‘1’ simultaneously, represented as a combination of probabilities for being in either state when measured.
• This property allows quantum computers to process multiple possibilities at once, enabling them to solve complex problems more efficiently by exploring numerous potential solutions simultaneously and finding the optimal one with minimal error. Quantum algorithms like Shor’s algorithm (used for factoring large numbers) and Grover’s algorithm (for quickly searching unstructured databases) leverage superposition to deliver results far faster than classical computers, which might take months for the same task.
• (b) Entanglement: Entanglement describes the phenomenon where two subatomic particles become linked, such that a change in one particle is instantly reflected in the other, regardless of the distance between them. This property can be used to enhance the security of quantum communication by entangling the qubits of the sender and receiver, preventing unauthorized access.
• (c) Interference: Interference refers to the superposition of quantum states in subatomic particles, which influences the likelihood of different outcomes when those particles are measured. While entanglement is a relationship between two particles, interference involves the interaction of multiple particles. It can be constructive or destructive, making it useful in quantum algorithms to improve accuracy by amplifying high-probability outcomes and suppressing less probable ones.
• Quantum technology, though relatively new, is a crucial interdisciplinary field with broad applications in science, research, healthcare, communication, security, and more. This brings us back to the goals and challenges of each focus area under the National Quantum Mission

5. Domains of National Quantum Mission

 

• (a) Quantum Computing: This area focuses on creating the necessary hardware, software, algorithms, and protocols for designing and developing quantum computing systems, such as quantum computers. While the National Quantum Mission is set to last for eight years (2023-2031), its progress can be broken down into three stages: developing 20-50 physical qubits within the first three years, 50-100 physical qubits within five years, and 50-1000 physical qubits by the end of eight years.
• It’s important to note that quantum computers are not meant to replace classical computers. Instead, they are designed to handle computational tasks that classical computers struggle with. For instance, factoring large numbers using classical computers requires vast amounts of memory and time. Even with superprocessors, such tasks could take months. Quantum computers, therefore, are expected to be used primarily in laboratories for these highly complex problems, while everyday users will continue relying on classical computers.
• (b) Quantum Communication: This focuses on developing secure satellite-based quantum communications between ground stations, which could be up to 2000 kilometers apart. This would enable secure communication both within and outside the country. The mission aims to develop inter-city quantum key distribution (QKD) networks with secure nodes, using wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) over optical fiber networks spanning large distances, up to 2000 kilometers.
• The goal is to develop key hardware for a multi-node quantum network, which includes quantum memories, entanglement swapping (enabling two particles that haven’t interacted to become entangled through a third particle), and synchronized quantum repeaters at each node (2-3 nodes).
• (c) Quantum Sensing & Metrology: NQM has set a dedicated goal to improve measurement accuracy and sensing capabilities. The mission plans to develop magnetometers with a sensitivity of 1 femto-Tesla/sqrt(Hz) in atomic systems, surpassing the previous 1 pico-Tesla/sqrt(Hz) benchmark. It also aims to enhance gravity measurement sensitivity beyond 100 nanometers/second² and develop atomic clocks with 10⁻¹⁹ fractional instability for more precise timing, communication, and navigation applications.
• (d) Quantum Materials & Devices: Advancing quantum technology requires specialized materials and devices. The National Quantum Mission aims to design and synthesize quantum materials, such as superconductors that function at extremely low temperatures (-273°C). Maintaining such low temperatures presents significant energy and technical challenges. The mission also seeks to develop innovative semiconductor structures and topological materials for creating quantum devices that will be used in various quantum technologies.
• To support each of these areas, Thematic Hubs (T-Hubs) will be established. These hubs will focus on key elements like technology development, human resource training, fostering entrepreneurship and startups, and promoting international collaborations

 

 

For Prelims: National Mission on Quantum Technologies & Applications, Internet-of-Things,  For Mains: 1. Discuss the need for implementing the National Mission on Quantum Technologies and Applications. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions 1. Which one of the following is the context in which the term "qubit" is mentioned? (UPSC 2022) A. Cloud Services B. Quantum Computing C. Visible Light Communication Technologies D. Wireless Communication Technologies Answer: B

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)

 

1. Context

At least 270 people, most of them passengers, were killed on June 12 when Air India flight 171, a London-bound Boeing 787-8 Dreamliner, crashed less than a minute after taking off from Ahmedabad airport. Following the accident, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) analysis is being used to identify the remains of those killed. In the past week, DNA samples from victims’ family members have been collected, matched and most remains have already been identified.

2. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

• Deoxyribonucleic acid (abbreviated DNA) is the molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an organism.
• DNA is made of two linked strands that wind around each other to resemble a twisted ladder a shape known as a double helix.
• Each strand has a backbone made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups.
• Attached to each sugar is one of four bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), or thymine (T).
• The two strands are connected by chemical bonds between the bases: adenine bonds with thymine, and cytosine bonds with guanine.
• The sequence of the bases along DNA’s backbone encodes biological information, such as the instructions for making a protein or RNA molecule. 

Image Source: National Human Genome Research Institute

3. DNA Structure and Function

• DNA is the information molecule. It stores instructions for making other large molecules, called proteins.
• These instructions are stored inside each of your cells, distributed among 46 long structures called chromosomes.
• These chromosomes are made up of thousands of shorter segments of DNA, called genes. Each gene stores the directions for making protein fragments, whole proteins, or multiple specific proteins.
• DNA is well-suited to perform this biological function because of its molecular structure, and because of the development of a series of high-performance enzymes that are fine-tuned to interact with this molecular structure in specific ways.
• The match between DNA structure and the activities of these enzymes is so effective and well-refined that DNA has become, over evolutionary time, the universal information-storage molecule for all forms of life.
• Nature has yet to find a better solution than DNA for storing, expressing, and passing along instructions for making proteins.

3.1 Molecular structure of DNA

• In order to understand the biological function of DNA, you first need to understand its molecular structure.
• This requires learning the vocabulary for talking about the building blocks of DNA, and how these building blocks are assembled to make DNA molecules.

3.2 DNA Molecules are Polymers

• Polymers are large molecules that are built up by repeatedly linking together smaller molecules, called monomers.
• Think of how a freight train is built by linking lots of individual boxcars together, or how this sentence is built by sticking together a specific sequence of individual letters (plus spaces and punctuation).
• In all three cases, the large structure of a train, a sentence, and a DNA molecule is composed of smaller structures that are linked together in non-random sequences boxcars, letters, and, in the biological case, DNA monomers.

3.3 DNA Monomers are called Nucleotides

• Just like the sentence “polymer” is composed of the letter “monomers,” a DNA polymer is composed of monomers called nucleotides.
• A molecule of DNA is a bunch of nucleotide monomers, joined one after another into a very long chain.

4. Four Nucleotide Monomers

• The English language has a 26-letter alphabet. In contrast, the DNA “alphabet” has only four “letters,” the four nucleotide monomers.
• They have short and easy-to-remember names: A, C, T, G. Each nucleotide monomer is built from three simple molecular parts: a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nucleobase. (Don’t confuse this use of “base” with the other one, which refers to a molecule that raises the pH of a solution; they’re two different things.)

5. The sugar and acid in all four monomers are the same

• All four nucleotides (A, T, G, and C) are made by sticking a phosphate group and a nucleobase to a sugar.
• The sugar in all four nucleotides is called deoxyribose. It’s a cyclical molecule most of its atoms are arranged in a ring structure.
• The ring contains one oxygen and four carbons. A fifth carbon atom is attached to the fourth carbon of the ring.
• Deoxyribose also contains a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the third carbon in the ring.

6. Four Nucleotide Monomers are distinguished by their bases

Each type of nucleotide has a different nucleobase stuck to its deoxyribose sugar.

• A nucleotide contains adenine
• A nucleotide contains thymine
• G nucleotide contains guanine
• C nucleotide contains cytosine

All four of these nucleobases are relatively complex molecules, with the unifying feature that they all tend to have multiple nitrogen atoms in their structures. For this reason, nucleobases are often also called nitrogenous bases.

7. DNA Fingerprinting

• It is known that every individual has unique fingerprints. These occur at the tips of the fingers and have been used for identification for a long time but these can be altered by surgery.
• A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a person and information regarding this is called DNA fingerprinting. It is the same for every cell and cannot be altered by any known treatment.
• DNA fingerprinting is now used (i) in forensic laboratories for the identification of criminals. (ii) to determine the paternity of an individual. (iii) to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNAs of parents or children. (iv) to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.

8. Recombinant DNA

• Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the genome.
• Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure. They differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that identical overall structure.
• In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal phenotypes. That is, their appearance, behavior, and metabolism are usually unchanged.

For Prelims: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), or thymine (T), RNA molecule, Polymers, Nucleotide, Nucleotide Monomers, DNA Fingerprinting and Recombinant DNA (rDNA). For Mains: 1. What is Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)? Discuss the structure and function of the Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and explain how it is different from RNA.(250 Words)

 

Previous year Question

 

1. Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) allows genes to be transferred (UPSC 2013) 1. across different species of plants 2. from animals to plants 3. from microorganisms to higher organisms Select the correct answer using the codes given below. A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D   2. With reference to the recent developments in science, which one of the following statements is not correct? (UPSC 2019) A. Functional chromosomes can be created by joining segments of DNA taken from cells of different species. B. Pieces of artificial functional DNA can be created in laboratories. C. A piece of DNA taken out from an animal cell can be made to replicate outside a living cell in a laboratory. D. Cells taken out from plants and animals can be made to undergo cell division in laboratory Petri dishes. Answer: A   3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) DNA Barcoding can be a tool to: 1. assess the age of a plant or animal. 2. distinguish among species that look alike. 3. identify undesirable animal or plant materials in processed foods. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 3 only C. 1 and 2 D. 2 and 3 Answer: D

 

Source: Down to Earth

 

MICROPLASTICS IN OCEANS

 

 

1. Context

 

Researchers have linked samples of microplastic pollution within 370 km off the U.S. shoreline to health data from 152 coastal counties. They found counties with very high microplastic levels had 18% more type-2 diabetes, 7% more coronary artery disease, and 9% more stroke incidents than those with low levels, after allowing for age, sex, healthcare, and social, economic, and environmental factors

 

2. About Microplastics

• Microplastics are tiny plastic particles that result from commercial product development and the breakdown of larger plastics.
• They are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5mm(0.20 in) in length.
• Plastic pollution is big evil and can help viruses alive and infectious in fresh water for days
• Microplastics are particularly harmful to the oceans as they don’t readily break down into harmless molecules and adversely affect the health of marine organisms, which mistake plastic for food. Moreover, these particles can trigger loss of biodiversity and threaten ecosystem balance

3. Key Findings

• Researchers examined surface-level plastic pollution data from nearly 12,000 ocean stations in six major marine regions, from 1979 to 2019
• Finally, by using computer modelling, the researchers were able to come up with a global time series to estimate not only how much microplastic is currently in the oceans but also how their concentration has changed over the years
• They found that from 1990 to 2005, the number of plastic particles more or less fluctuated
• One of the reasons for this could be due to the effective implementation of important policy measures at the time
• In the 1980s and 90s, some international policies, like MARPOL Annex 5, enforced laws against dumping trash at sea. They were powerful laws that were enforceable and were preventative
• However, things went downhill soon after as the world began producing much more plastic than ever before
• Therefore, as the study pointed out, the concentration of plastic particles including microplastics in the ocean has skyrocketed in the oceans since the mid-2000s, and it continues to increase
• Researchers further mentioned that if the world fails to take any drastic action about the issue, there will be a 2.6-fold increase in plastic flowing into aquatic environments by 2040

4. Impacts of Microplastics on Ocean and Marine life

• Several recent studies have detected microplastics in marine organisms, from phytoplankton to whales and dolphins, which might prove hazardous for them
• The ingestion of such particles can cause “mechanical problems, such as lacerations and blockages to internal systems.”
• Ingested plastics can cause chemical problems by leaching absorb chemicals into organisms
• We know that microplastics absorb many hydrophobic compounds, like DDT, PCBs and other industrial chemicals, and evidence shows they can be released when ingested
• Microplastics can also disrupt the carbon cycle of the oceans
• Normally, phytoplankton absorbs carbon and are eaten by zooplankton, who excrete the carbon in the form of faecal pellets that sink to the sea floor
•  Once these carbon-containing pellets reach there, “the carbon can be remineralized into rocks  preventing it from escaping back into the atmosphere,”
• If zooplanktons consume microplastics, their faecal pellets sink at a much slower rate, which means they are more likely to break apart or be eaten by other animals
• Making it less likely that the carbon will reach the seafloor and become permanently sequestered

5. How to limit plastic pollution in oceans

 

• Researchers of the latest study suggested that there is an urgent need to implement a global resolution to limit the production of single-use, throwaway plastic
• We need cities to be responsible for managing their waste so it does not leave their territory
• We need to reduce the amount of chemical additives in new plastic products
•  If we talk about recycling, there have to be requirements that recycled plastic be used in new products
•  The industries that make plastic like to talk about how technically we can recycle all of it. But they don’t like to commit to buying recycled plastic, therefore recycling fails

 

 

 

Source: indianexpress

 

 

ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE

 

1. Context

Traditional livestock production systems have severe environmental consequences, including high greenhouse gas emissions, extensive land and water use, and risk of fostering antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Together with the steadily rising demand for nutrition, global and regional food systems have been exploring alternative ways to sustainably maintain their supply chains

2. What is Anti Microbial Resistance?

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change over time and no longer respond to medicine making infections harder to treat and increasing the risk of disease spread severe illness, and death.

3. Emergence and spread of AMR

• AMR occurs naturally over time, usually through genetic changes.
• Antimicrobial-resistant organisms are found in people, animals, food, plants, and the environment (in water, soil, and air).
• They can spread from person to person or between people and animals, including from food of animal origin.
• The main drivers of antimicrobial resistance include the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials, lack of access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) for both humans and animals, and poor infection and disease prevention and control in healthcare facilities and farms. Poor access to quality, affordable medicines, vaccines, and diagnostics, lack of awareness and knowledge, and lack of enforcement of legislation.

4. Factors causing AMR in India

Inappropriate consumption of board-spectrum (last resort) antibiotics is high because of changing prescription practices in the healthcare system due to the non-availability of a narrow spectrum of antibiotics.

Inappropriate antibiotics use among the general public like self-medication to avoid the financial burden.

A large proportion of sewage is disposed of untreated into receiving water bodies, leading to gross contamination of rivers with antibiotic residues, and antibiotic-resistant organisms.

 

5. Reasons for the recent increase in the use of antibiotics in India

• The high disease burden
• The rising income
• The easy and cheap availability of these medicines to the public.
• The uncontrolled sales of antibiotics
• Poor Public health infrastructure
• Lack of awareness regarding the misuse of antibiotics.

6. Government Initiatives that help to curb Antimicrobial Resistance In India

The Union Health Minister of India in the International Conference on Anti-Microbial Resistance stated that the first step in addressing the problem of AMR is to avoid the need for antibiotics at all in the first place. Improved water, vaccination, and sanitation may control inappropriate antibiotic use indirectly. The main government policies that help in this process are:

• Through the Swacch Bharat Program, the government has taken active steps to improve hygiene and sanitation and reduce the environmental spread of pathogens.
• Vaccination is an equally important public health measure, and through Mission Indradhaniush, India has set itself an ambitious goal of increasing routine immunization coverage to 90% within just a few years.

6.1 Red Line Campaign

The Union health ministry's Anti-Microbial Resistance awareness campaign urges people not to use medicines marked with a red vertical line, including antibiotics, without a doctor's prescription.

These medicines are called the 'Medicines with the Red Line.

To check the irrational use of antibiotics, the 'red line' will help the users to differentiate them from the drugs.

This campaign is aimed at discouraging unnecessary prescription and the counter sale of antibiotics causing drug resistance for several critical diseases including TB, malaria, urinary tract infection, and even HIV. 

7. WHO's Global plan on Anti-Microbial Resistance?

• To improve awareness and understanding of antimicrobial resistance through effective communication, education, and training.
• To Strengthen the knowledge and evidence base through surveillance and research.
• To reduce the incidence of infection through effective sanitation, hygiene, and infection prevention measures.
• To Optimize the use of antimicrobial medicines in human and animal health.
• To develop the economic case for sustainable investment that takes account of the needs of all countries and to increase investment in new medicines, diagnostic tools, vaccines, and other interventions.

8. Global efforts

8.1 Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (GAP): Globally, countries committed to the framework set out in the Global Action Plan1 (GAP) 2015 on AMR during the 2015 World Health Assembly and committed to the development and implementation of multisectoral national action plans.

8.2 Tripartite Joint Secretariat on Antimicrobial Resistance: Tripartite joint secretariat (FAO, OIE, and WHO) has been established and is hosted by WHO to drive multi-stakeholder engagement in AMR.

8.3 World Antimicrobial Awareness Week (WAAW): WAAW was previously called World Antibiotic Awareness Week. From 2020, it will be called world Anti-Microbial Awareness Week. It is a global campaign that aims to raise awareness of antimicrobial resistance worldwide.

8.4 Global Antimicrobial Resistance and use surveillance system (GLASS): WHO launched it in 2015 to continue filling knowledge gaps and to inform strategies at all levels. GLASS has been conceived to progressively incorporate data from surveillance of AMR in humans, surveillance of the use of Antimicrobial medicines, and AMR in the food chain and the environment.

 

For Prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), UN Environment Programme, the World Health Organization (WHO), World Organisation for Animal Health, Mission Indradhaniush, Red Line Campaign. For Mains: 1.Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is considered one of the most significant challenges the world faces today. Discuss.

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India? ( UPSC CSE 2019) Genetic predisposition of some people Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases Using antibiotics in livestock farming Multiple chronic diseases in some people Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 Answer: (b)

 Source: Down to Earth

 

 

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)

 

 

1. Context

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has cut key lending rates in two successive meetings, indicating a significant expansionary shift. In April 2025, the repo rate was cut by 25 basis points, and a further 50 basis point cut was announced in the recent meeting in June, bringing the policy repo rate to 5.5%. The RBI forecasts GDP growth of 6.5% for 2025-26, and inflation within the band of 4% +/- 2%, indicating sufficient room for these rate cuts

 

2. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

 

Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period. It is often used as a measure of a country's economic health

GDP provides insight into the overall economic health of a nation and is often used for comparing the economic output of different countries.

There are three primary ways to calculate GDP:

1. Production Approach (GDP by Production): This approach calculates GDP by adding up the value-added at each stage of production. It involves summing up the value of all final goods and services produced in an economy.

2. Income Approach (GDP by Income): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the incomes earned in an economy, including wages, rents, interests, and profits. The idea is that all the income generated in an economy must ultimately be spent on purchasing goods and services.

3. Expenditure Approach (GDP by Expenditure): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the expenditures made on final goods and services. It includes consumption by households, investments by businesses, government spending, and net exports (exports minus imports).

3. Measuring GDP

GDP can be measured in three different ways:

1. Nominal GDP: This is the raw GDP figure without adjusting for inflation. It reflects the total value of goods and services produced at current prices.

2. Real GDP: Real GDP adjusts the nominal GDP for inflation, allowing for a more accurate comparison of economic performance over time. It represents the value of goods and services produced using constant prices from a specific base year.

3. GDP per capita: This is the GDP divided by the population of a country. It provides a per-person measure of economic output and can be useful for comparing the relative economic well-being of different countries.

The GDP growth rate is the percentage change in the GDP from one year to the next. A positive GDP growth rate indicates that the economy is growing, while a negative GDP growth rate indicates that the economy is shrinking

The GDP is a useful measure of economic health, but it has some limitations. For example, it does not take into account the distribution of income in an economy. It also does not take into account the quality of goods and services produced.

Despite its limitations, the GDP is a widely used measure of economic health. It is used by economists, policymakers, and businesses to track the performance of an economy and to make decisions about economic policy

4. Gross Value Added (GVA)

 

Gross Value Added (GVA) is a closely related concept to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and is used to measure the economic value generated by various economic activities within a country. GVA represents the value of goods and services produced in an economy minus the value of inputs (such as raw materials and intermediate goods) used in production. It's a way to measure the contribution of each individual sector or industry to the overall economy.

GVA can be calculated using the production approach, similar to one of the methods used to calculate GDP. The formula for calculating GVA is as follows:

GVA = Output Value - Intermediate Consumption

Where:

• Output Value: The total value of goods and services produced by an industry or sector.
• Intermediate Consumption: The value of inputs used in the production process, including raw materials, energy, and other intermediate goods.

5. GDP vs GNP

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) are both important economic indicators used to measure the size and health of an economy, but they focus on slightly different aspects of economic activity and include different factors. Here are the key differences between GDP and GNP:

1. Definition and Scope:

   • GDP: GDP measures the total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders, regardless of whether the production is done by domestic or foreign entities. It only considers economic activities that take place within the country.
   • GNP: GNP measures the total value of all goods and services produced by a country's residents, whether they are located within the country's borders or abroad. It takes into account the production of residents, both domestically and internationally.

2. Foreign Income and Payments:

   • GDP: GDP does not consider the income earned by residents of a country from their economic activities abroad, nor does it account for payments made to foreigners working within the country.
   • GNP: GNP includes the income earned by a country's residents from their investments and activities abroad, minus the income earned by foreign residents from their investments within the country.

3. Net Factor Income from Abroad:

   • GDP: GDP does not account for net factor income from abroad, which is the difference between income earned by domestic residents abroad and income earned by foreign residents domestically.
   • GNP: GNP includes net factor income from abroad as part of its calculation.

4. Foreign Direct Investment:

   • GDP: GDP does not directly consider foreign direct investment (FDI) flowing into or out of a country.
   • GNP: GNP considers the impact of FDI on the income of a country's residents, both from investments made within the country and from investments made by residents abroad.

5. Measurement Approach:

   • GDP: GDP can be calculated using three different approaches: production, income, and expenditure approaches.
   • GNP: GNP is primarily calculated using the income approach, as it focuses on the income earned by residents from their economic activities.

 

 

 

 

For Prelims: GDP, GVA, FDI, GNP For Mains: 1.Discuss the recent trends and challenges in India's GDP growth 2.Examine the role of the service sector in India's GDP growth 3.Compare and contrast the growth trajectories of India's GDP and GNP

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.With reference to Indian economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2015) 1. The rate of growth of Real Gross Domestic Product has steadily increased in the last decade. 2. The Gross Domestic Product at market prices (in rupees) has steadily increased in the last decade. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (b) 2.A decrease in tax to GDP ratio of a country indicates which of the following? (UPSC CSE, 2015) 1. Slowing economic growth rate 2. Less equitable distribution of national income Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (a) Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme: Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP? (UPSC CSE GS3, 2020) Explain the difference between computing methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) before the year 2015 and after the year 2015. (UPSC CSE GS3, 2021)

 

Source: indianexpress