2. About the Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is a key demographic indicator that helps us understand the average number of children a woman in a specific population will have during her lifetime, assuming current birth patterns persist. It's different from the crude birth rate, which simply measures the number of births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. 

What it measures

• The average number of children a woman will have throughout her reproductive lifespan.
• It considers age-specific fertility rates, which means it takes into account the different birth rates at different ages within the population.
• Provides a longer-term perspective on population dynamics compared to the crude birth rate.

Significance

• Helps assess population growth trends and predict future population size.
• Informs policy decisions related to education, healthcare, social security, and economic development.
• Understanding TFR is crucial for analyzing the potential demographic dividend, which refers to the economic and social benefits that can arise from a large working-age population due to declining fertility rates.

Calculation

• Summing the age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) for all fertile age groups (typically 15-49 years) and multiplying by five.
• ASFRs represent the average number of births per 1,000 women in a specific age group.

Key TFR levels

• Replacement fertility rate: Around 2.1 children per woman, ensures population stability without growth or decline due to births and deaths (excluding migration).
• TFR below replacement: Indicates a declining population, with potential implications for workforce size and economic growth.
• TFR above replacement: Leads to population growth, requiring investments in infrastructure and resources to support the growing population.

3. What does the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.0 mean?

A Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.0 means that, on average, each woman in the population is expected to give birth to two children over her reproductive lifetime. This value represents the replacement level of fertility, where each generation replaces itself in the population. When the TFR is around 2.0, it indicates that the population is stable, with births balancing deaths over time.

A Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.0 indicates several key things

• Average Children per Woman: In that specific population, on average, a woman will have two children during her lifetime, assuming current birth patterns remain unchanged. This means that each generation of women is replacing itself, without population growth or decline due solely to births and deaths (excluding migration).
• Replacement Fertility Rate: A TFR of 2.0 is often referred to as the replacement fertility rate. This is because it signifies the level of fertility needed to maintain a stable population size over time, considering only births and deaths. However, it's important to note that the exact replacement level can vary slightly depending on mortality rates, particularly child mortality.
• Demographic Transition: A TFR of 2.0 suggests that the population is likely in the later stages of the demographic transition. This transition involves a shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates. In this stage, populations typically experience a decline in fertility, followed by a decline in mortality, leading to a stabilization of population size.
• Global Context: While 2.0 is the replacement fertility rate, the global average TFR is currently around 2.3, indicating slight population growth. However, many developed countries have TFRs below replacement level, which can lead to an ageing population and potential challenges for social security systems and workforce size.
• Policy Implications: Understanding the TFR is crucial for policymakers in various areas like education, healthcare, social security, and economic development. A TFR below replacement may necessitate policies encouraging childbirth or attracting immigration to address potential workforce shortages. Conversely, a high TFR might require investments in infrastructure and resources to support a growing population.

4. What is the Replacement Fertility Rate?

The Replacement Fertility Rate (RFR) is the level of fertility required to maintain a stable population size in a given area, considering only births and deaths (excluding migration). This means that each generation of women has just enough daughters to replace themselves and their mothers in the population.

Key Points about RFR

• Typically around 2.1 children per woman This number varies slightly depending on a country's mortality rates, especially child mortality rates. Higher child mortality necessitates slightly higher fertility to ensure replacement.
• When the TFR matches the RFR, the population neither grows nor declines due to births and deaths.
• Reaching RFR suggests a population in the later stages of the demographic transition, characterized by declining birth and death rates.
• Though the global average TFR is 2.3 (slightly above RFR), many developed countries have TFRs below RFR, leading to ageing populations.

Significance of RFR

• Understanding RFR helps policymakers formulate effective policies in areas like education, healthcare, social security, and economic development.
• TFR below RFR may require policies to encourage childbirth or attract immigration to address potential workforce shortages and support ageing populations. Conversely, a high TFR might necessitate investments in infrastructure and resources to sustain a growing population.
• Analyzing TFR about RFR offers insights into potential population growth or decline, aiding in planning and resource allocation.

5. How is the Total Fertility Rate calculated?

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is calculated by considering the age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) of a population. 

1. Age-specific fertility Rates (ASFRs) represent the average number of births per 1,000 women within a specific age group. Typically, ASFRs are calculated for five-year age groups ranging from 15-49 years, covering the typical childbearing years for women. Data for calculating ASFRs usually comes from population censuses or demographic surveys.
2. Once you have the ASFRs for each age group, you need to sum them all up. This gives you the total number of births expected per 1,000 women across all fertile age groups.
3. Since age groups may have different sizes, simply summing ASFRs wouldn't be entirely accurate. To account for this, the sum is multiplied by the average number of women in each age group. This ensures the TFR reflects the fertility rates across all age groups proportionally.
4. Often, instead of using the actual number of women in each age group, a standard factor of "5" is used for convenience. This assumes that each age group has roughly the same number of women, which is a reasonable approximation for many populations.

Therefore, the TFR formula becomes: TFR = (Sum of ASFRs across all age groups) * 5

Example:

Imagine a hypothetical population with the following ASFRs:

• 15-19 years: 30 births per 1,000 women
• 20-24 years: 80 births per 1,000 women
• 25-29 years: 120 births per 1,000 women
• 30-34 years: 90 births per 1,000 women
• 35-39 years: 50 births per 1,000 women
• 40-44 years: 20 births per 1,000 women
• 45-49 years: 10 births per 1,000 women

Using the formula:

• TFR = (30 + 80 + 120 + 90 + 50 + 20 + 10) * 5
• TFR = 400 * 5
• TFR = 2000 births per 1,000 women

Therefore, in this example, the TFR is 2.0, indicating that on average, a woman in this population would have 2 children during her lifetime based on the current age-specific fertility rates.

6. The difference between birth rate and Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

While both birth rate and Total Fertility Rate (TFR) measure fertility within a population, they have key differences that offer distinct insights:

7. About demographic dividend

A demographic dividend refers to the potential economic and social benefits that can arise when a large share of the population is in the working-age (typically 15-64 years) compared to the dependent populations (children and elderly). This shift in population structure is often caused by a decline in fertility rates without a corresponding decline in mortality rates, leading to a "bulge" in the working-age population.

Key Features

• A larger working-age population translates to a larger pool of available labour, potentially boosting economic growth and productivity.
• The ratio of dependents (children and elderly) to the working-age population decreases, leading to increased savings and investment as fewer resources are needed to support dependents.
• The potential for increased investments in education and healthcare due to a smaller dependent population, leading to a more skilled and healthy workforce.

Conditions for a Dividend

• A significant and sustained decline in fertility rates is crucial for the demographic dividend to occur.
• The benefits of a demographic dividend can only be realized if the working-age population is adequately educated, skilled, and healthy.
• Expanding job opportunities is essential to absorb the growing workforce and prevent unemployment.

Challenges and Considerations

• The demographic dividend may not be evenly distributed across regions or social groups, potentially leading to inequalities.
• Governments and businesses need to adapt policies and infrastructure to accommodate the changing population structure.
• Ensuring social security and healthcare for the ageing population is crucial to sustain the benefits of the dividend.

Examples

• Several East Asian countries, like China and South Korea, experienced significant economic growth due to their demographic dividends in the latter half of the 20th century.
• India is currently experiencing a demographic transition with a declining fertility rate, creating the potential for a future dividend. However, realizing this potential requires investments in education, healthcare, and job creation.

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. The total fertility rate is: (HPPSC GS 2018) (MPSC 2015)   A. The birth of women divided by the total female population B. The number of births divided by the total population C. The number of children a woman will likely bear in her lifetime D. The births to women of a given age divided by the total number of women at that age Answer: C   Mains   1. "Empowering women is the key to control the population growth.’’ Discuss. (UPSC 2019) 2. Critically examine the effect of globalization on the aged population in India. (UPSC 2013) 3. Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to achieve them in India in detail. (UPSC 2021) 4. Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP? (UPSC 2020)

 

 Source: The Indian Express

 

UNIQUE IDENTIFICATION AUTHORITY OF INDIA (UIDAI)

 

 

 

1. Context

It is impossible to compare the fingerprints of a deceased with the Aadhaar database and provide demographic information to the police for the purpose of ascertaining the identity of a body, the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) has told the Madras High Court

 

2. Aadhar fingerprint technology work

• The technology uses a combination of both finger minutiae and finger image to check the liveness of the fingerprint captured
• The measure was implemented after instances of people creating fake fingerprints using silicone to syphon off money from unsuspecting individuals’ bank accounts were reported
• Aadhaar fingerprint technology works by using a scanner to capture the unique patterns of ridges and valleys on a person's finger.
• The scanner converts the fingerprint image into a digital algorithm, which is then stored in a database.
• When a person's fingerprint is scanned again, the algorithm is used to compare it to the stored fingerprint. If the two algorithms match, the person is authenticated.
• The Aadhaar fingerprint technology is very accurate, with a false acceptance rate of less than 0.0001%.
• This means that there is a very small chance that someone else's fingerprint will be mistakenly matched to yours

3. Payment frauds

• According to the Home Ministry, in the financial year 2020-21, 2.62 lakhs financial crimes, such as money laundering, bribery, corruption and different kinds of frauds, were reported
• The number jumped to 6.94 lakhs in 2022, a report, released by the Standing Committee on Finance
• Citing data it received from the supervised entities of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the committee noted that payment-related frauds are on the rise in India 
• In FY21, the volume of such frauds was a little over 700,000, which by FY23, increased to close to 20 million. 

4.Can technology solve fraud problem

Deploying technological measures to curtail financial frauds has its own limits, though.

For instance, they have failed to thwart a number of frauds related to AePS, in which a business correspondent, a key member in the payment supply chain, is the culprit

A business correspondent (BC) is an informal bank agent equipped with a biometric Point-of-Sale (PoS) machine, which works like a micro ATM

5. About the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI)

1. The Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) is a statutory authority established in January 2009 by the Government of India under the provisions of the Aadhaar Act, 2016. UIDAI is responsible for issuing unique identification numbers, known as Aadhaar numbers, to residents of India
2. The primary objective of UIDAI is to provide a unique and verifiable identity to every Indian resident, regardless of age, gender, or socioeconomic status
3. The UIDAI is responsible for issuing Aadhaar, a 12-digit unique identification number to all residents of India.

Aadhaar is a proof of identity and address, and can be used for a variety of purposes, such as:

• Accessing government services
• Opening bank accounts
• Making payments
• Traveling
• Enrolling in school

6. Way forward

Aadhaar has been integrated into various welfare schemes and government services, making it an essential part of India's digital identity infrastructure. However, it has also raised concerns about privacy, data security, and potential misuse of personal information. The Indian government has taken steps to address these concerns and improve the security and accessibility of Aadhaar services

 

 

For Prelims: UIDAI, Aadhar, Cybercrime For Mains: 1.Discuss the potential cybersecurity risks and challenges associated with the Aadhaar biometric authentication system in India. What measures should be taken to mitigate these risks effectively? 2.Analyze the role of Aadhaar in combating cybercrimes in India. How can Aadhaar's unique identification system be leveraged to enhance cybersecurity and protect individuals from online threats?

 

Previous year Questions 1. Consider the following Statements (UPSC CSE 2018) 1. Aadhar card can be used as proof of citizenship or domicile 2.Once issued, the Aadhar number cannot be deactivated or omitted by the issuing Authority Which of the statements given above is/ or Correct? A. 1 Only B. 2 Only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer- D 2.Consider the following statements 1. Aadhar card data cannot be stored more than three months 2.State cannot enter into any contract with private corporations for sharing Aadhar data 3.Aadhar is mandatory for obtaining insurance products  4. Aadhar is mandatory for getting benefits funded out of the Consolidated fund of India Which of the statements given above is/ are correct A. 1 and 4 B. 2 and 4 C. 3 Only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer - B

Source: indianexpress

 

IMD MONSOON FORECAST

 

 

1. Context

 

The southwest monsoon is likely to reach Kerala later this week, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) said on Tuesday, predicting the earliest monsoon onset in over 15 years

 

2. How do ocean currents impact the monsoon in a region?

 

Ocean currents can have a significant impact on the monsoon in a region by influencing factors such as sea surface temperatures (SSTs), moisture availability, and atmospheric circulation patterns.

 

Here's how ocean currents affect the monsoon:

• Ocean currents transport heat from one region to another, affecting sea surface temperatures. Warmer SSTs provide more energy and moisture to the atmosphere, which can enhance the intensity of monsoon rains. Cooler SSTs, on the other hand, can suppress rainfall by reducing moisture availability and destabilizing atmospheric conditions
• Ocean currents play a crucial role in supplying moisture to the atmosphere. Warm ocean currents increase evaporation rates, leading to higher atmospheric moisture content. This moisture is then transported inland by prevailing winds, contributing to the development of rainfall during the monsoon season
• Ocean currents influence atmospheric circulation patterns, such as the formation of high and low-pressure systems. These pressure systems, in turn, drive the movement of air masses and the onset, duration, and intensity of the monsoon. For example, the interaction between ocean currents and the atmosphere in the Indian Ocean can influence the position and strength of the Indian summer monsoon
• Changes in ocean currents can alter regional climate patterns, including the distribution of rainfall and temperature. Variations in ocean currents, such as El Niño and La Niña events in the Pacific Ocean, can disrupt normal monsoon patterns by affecting atmospheric circulation and SSTs, leading to droughts or floods in affected regions
• Ocean-atmosphere interactions create feedback mechanisms that can amplify or dampen the effects of the monsoon. For example, warm SSTs can enhance atmospheric convection and cloud formation, leading to increased rainfall. Conversely, cooler SSTs can inhibit convection and reduce rainfall, creating a feedback loop that influences the strength and duration of the monsoon

3. Important Ocean Currents

 

• North Atlantic Drift (Gulf Stream): This warm ocean current flows from the Gulf of Mexico northeastward along the eastern coast of North America before turning eastward toward Europe. It impacts the climate of the eastern United States and Western Europe.

• Kuroshio Current: The Kuroshio is a strong western boundary current in the North Pacific Ocean. It flows northeastward along the eastern coast of Taiwan and Japan before turning eastward toward the North Pacific. The Kuroshio influences weather patterns and marine ecosystems in the region.

• East Australian Current: This warm ocean current flows southward along the eastern coast of Australia, transporting warm tropical waters toward the temperate regions of the southeast. It influences the climate and marine biodiversity along the Australian coast.

• Peru Current (Humboldt Current): The Peru Current is a cold ocean current that flows northward along the western coast of South America, originating from Antarctica. It brings cold, nutrient-rich waters to the surface, supporting productive fisheries off the coast of Peru and Chile.

• California Current: This cold ocean current flows southward along the western coast of North America, parallel to the coast of California. It originates from the North Pacific and influences the climate and marine ecosystems of the region.

• Agulhas Current: The Agulhas is a warm ocean current that flows southward along the eastern coast of Africa, transporting warm Indian Ocean waters toward the Southern Ocean. It plays a significant role in the climate and marine ecology of the Indian Ocean region.

• North Pacific Current: This warm ocean current flows eastward across the North Pacific Ocean, between Japan and the Aleutian Islands. It influences the climate and marine habitats in the North Pacific region.

4. What is the Southwest Monsoon?

 

• The Southwest Monsoon, also known as the summer monsoon, is a seasonal wind pattern that brings heavy rainfall to the Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions during the summer months. It is one of the most significant weather phenomena in South Asia and has a profound impact on the region's climate, agriculture, economy, and society.
• The Southwest Monsoon typically occurs from June to September, originating from the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. During the summer months, the landmass of the Indian subcontinent heats up more rapidly than the surrounding ocean waters. This temperature difference creates a low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent, drawing moist air from the Indian Ocean.
• As the warm, moisture-laden air moves inland, it encounters the Western Ghats mountain range along the western coast of India. The Western Ghats act as a barrier, forcing the moist air to ascend and cool rapidly, leading to condensation and the formation of heavy rainfall. This phenomenon is known as orographic rainfall.
• The Southwest Monsoon winds also interact with the Himalayas in northern India, leading to orographic rainfall in the foothills and contributing to the formation of major river systems such as the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Indus.
• The onset and intensity of the Southwest Monsoon are influenced by various factors, including sea surface temperatures, atmospheric pressure patterns, and the presence of phenomena such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
• The Southwest Monsoon is crucial for agriculture in the Indian subcontinent, as it provides the majority of the region's annual rainfall. Farmers rely on the monsoon rains to irrigate crops such as rice, wheat, and sugarcane, which form the backbone of the region's economy

5.IMD Forecast Key takeaways

 

• IMD forecasts the monsoon condition every year. It has predicted a good monsoon rainfall during the southwest monsoon season

• The transition of the weakening El-Nino into a neutral condition ahead of the monsoon onset. EL-Nino is associated with suppressed rainfall during the Indian monsoon.
• The emergence of La-Nina during the second-half of the monsoon is expected to bring higher than normal rainfall over the country. La-Nina is known to help rainfall activity during monsoon.
• There is a possibility of a positive phase of the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). IOD is the Indian Ocean counterpart of El Nino. The positive phase of IOD is good for rainfall over India.
• Another positive factor is the below average snow cover along Eurasia and the northern hemisphere during December-March

IMD has categorized rainfall during monsoon on the 50-year average of rainfall: Rainfall between 105-110%: Above normal rainfall  Rainfall between 96%-104%: Normal rainfall Rainfall between 90-95%: Below normal rainfall Rainfall less than 90%: Deficient rainfall

 

 

6. What is the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)?

 

The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a climate phenomenon characterized by fluctuations in sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and atmospheric pressure across the equatorial Pacific Ocean. It has significant impacts on weather patterns, temperature, and precipitation around the globe.

ENSO consists of three phases:

• El Niño: During El Niño events, warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures develop in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, near the coast of South America. This warming disrupts normal atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to changes in weather and climate across the Pacific and beyond. El Niño typically brings drier and warmer conditions to the western Pacific, including Australia and Indonesia, while increasing rainfall in the central and eastern Pacific, including parts of South America.

• La Niña: La Niña events are characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. This cooling enhances normal atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to opposite effects compared to El Niño. La Niña often brings increased rainfall to the western Pacific, including Australia and Indonesia, while causing drier and cooler conditions in the central and eastern Pacific, including parts of South America.

• Neutral: Neutral conditions occur when sea surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific are near average. During neutral phases, ENSO does not exert a significant influence on global weather patterns, although other climate drivers may still play a role

 

7. Way Forward

 In a normal year, the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean, near the northwestern coast of South America, is cooler than the western side near the islands of Philippines and Indonesia. The reason for this is the prevailing wind systems that move from east to west sweep the warmer surface waters towards the Indonesian coast. The relatively cooler waters from below come up to replace the displaced water

 

 

For Prelims: Indian and World Geography – Physical, Social, Economic geography of India and the World. For Mains:  GS-I, Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclones. etc., geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLES

 

1. Context

The Olive Ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), a vulnerable sea turtle species, made headlines earlier this year: a record-breaking seven lakh turtles had nested at Odisha’s Rushikulya beach alone in March

2. Olive Ridley Turtles

• The Olive ridley turtles are the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found in the world.
• These turtles are carnivores and get their name from their olive-colored carapace.
• They are best known for their unique mass nesting called Arribada, where thousands of females come together on the same beach to lay eggs.
• They are found in warm waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans.
• Odisha's Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary is known as the world's largest rookery of sea turtles.

Image Source: Down to Earth

3. Conservation of Olive Ridley Turtles

• Conservation of the Olive Ridley turtles in Odisha began with the discovery and worldwide recognition of the Gahirmatha rookery close to the mouth of the Brahmani-Baitarani (Dharma) River, in 1974.
• A second mass nesting was discovered in 1981 at the Devi River mouth, about 55 nautical miles south of Gahirmatha.
• In 1994, a third mass nesting area was also discovered at the Rushkulya river mouth, 162 nautical miles south of Gahirmatha.
• The Olive Ridley Turtles come to the beaches of the Odisha coast annually between November and December and stay on until April and May for nesting. 
• Off late, nesting has been observed to start from late January to early February. The turtles choose the narrow beaches near estuaries and bays for laying their eggs.
• Each adult female lays approximately a hundred to hundred and forty eggs at a time.

4. Threats faced by Olive Ridley Turtles

• The Olive Ridleys face serious threats across their migratory route, habitat, and nesting beaches, due to human activities such as turtle-unfriendly fishing practices, and the development and exploitation of nesting beaches for ports, and tourist centers.
• Though international trade in these turtles and their products is banned, they are still extensively poached for their meat, shell, and leather.
• Turtles eggs, though illegal to harvest, have a significantly large market around the coastal regions.
• The most severe threat faced by the Olive Ridleys is the accidental killing of adult turtles through entanglement in trawl nets and gill nets due to uncontrolled fishing around nesting beaches during their mating season.
• Over 1.3 lakh turtles are believed to have been killed after being entangled in the nets of mechanized fishing trawlers in the last thirteen years.

5. Legislation for the Protection of Olive Ridley Turtles

• All five species of sea turtles occurring in India, including the Olive Ridley Turtles, are legally protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and Appendix I of the CITES convention which prohibits trade in turtle products.
• The mass nesting beach of Gahirmatha is a part of Bhitarkanika Wildlife sanctuary and the waters around Bhitarkanika was declared as Gahirmatha (Marine) Wildlife Sanctuary in September 1997, to protect the nesting and breeding habitat of the Olive Ridley.
• The coastal waters off Devi and Rushikulya rookery are declared as a no-fishing zone during the sea turtle breeding season under the Odisha Marine.
• Fisheries Regulation Act (OMFRA), 1982, and Odisha Marine Fisheries Regulation Rules, 1983. The Coast Guard is empowered to enforce the provisions of the Act.
• To reduce accidental entrapment and death of turtles, the Odisha government has made it mandatory for the mechanized fishing trawlers to use Turtle Excluder Devices or TEDs, which is a specially designed net with an exit cover that retains the catch while allowing the turtles to escape.

6. Operation Olivia, 2014

• As the nesting period stretched over six months, the Indian Coast Guard undertakes the Olive Ridley Turtle protection program under the code name 'Operation Olivia' every year.
• Coast Guard District No.7 (Odisha) commenced Operation Olivia 2014 on 08 Nov 2014 under the coordination and control of Commander Coast Guard Region (North East).
• As part of the operation, fishing boats found close to the marine reserve area were regularly checked by the ship's boarding party for confirming the usage of turtle excluder devices (TEDs).
• Offenders were warned and reported to the Assistant Director of Fisheries. Close coordination was maintained with the fisheries and forest department during the entire operation.

7. Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary

• Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary is a marine wildlife sanctuary located in Odisha.
• It extends from the Dhamra River mouth in the north to the Mahanadi river mouth in the south.
• It is very famous for its nesting beach for olive ridley sea turtles.
• It is the one of world's most important nesting beaches for turtles.
• The olive ridley turtles turn up in millions for mass nesting along the Odisha coast every year. This phenomenon is referred to as 'arribada'.
• Apart from Gahirmatha, these aquatic animals turn up at the Rushikulya river mouth and Devi river mouth for mass nesting.
• Rushikulya river mouth is considered the second-biggest nesting site for Olive Ridley Turtles in India.

Previous year question

1. Which one of the following is the national aquatic animal of India? (UPSC 2015) A.Saltwater crocodile B. Olive ridley turtle C. Gangetic dolphin D. Gharial Answer: C 2. The 'Olive Ridley Turtles are considered to be endangered because of their few remaining nesting sites in the world. In this context, which among the following statement(s) is/are correct? (OPSC 2016) (1) Their peculiar behavior of synchronized nesting in mass numbers is known as Arribada'. (2) Gahirmatha Beach in Orissa is one of their few nesting grounds in the world. A. Only 1           B. Only 2             C. Both 1 and 2               D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: C 3. Which of the following statements about the olive ridley turtles is/are correct? (CDS 2018) 1. They are the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found in the world. 2. They live in warm waters of Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. 3. The Coromandel Coast in India is the largest mass nesting site for the olive ridley turtles. Select the correct Answer using the code given below. A. 1, 2 and 3       B. 1 and 2 only         C. 2 and 3 only         D. 1 only Answer: B

For Prelims 

For Prelims: Olive Ridley turtles, arribada, Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary, Brahmani-Baitarani (Dharma) River, Devi River, Rushkulya river, Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, CITES convention, Bhitarkanika Wildlife sanctuary, Fisheries Regulation Act (OMFRA), 1982, and Turtle Excluder Devices or TEDs.

Source: Down to Earth

 

JAL JEEVAN MISSION

 

 

1. Context

 

THE GOVERNMENT has decided to send 100 teams of Central Nodal Officers for “ground inspection” of the Jal Jeevan Mission schemes across the country. The move follows a meeting chaired by the Cabinet Secretary on May 8 to review the mission’s schemes

 

2. Jal Jeevan Mission

 

• The Jal Jeevan Mission, launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on August 15, 2019, was envisioned to ensure tap water access to approximately 16 crore rural households, with the goal of achieving universal coverage by 2024.

• However, in just over five years, only 75% of the target has been met. To cover the remaining 4 crore households, the government now plans to extend the mission’s deadline to December 31, 2028.

• The Ministry of Jal Shakti had sought Rs 2.79 lakh crore from the Centre to finish the project. But according to sources, the Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC)—headed by the Expenditure Secretary—reviewed the proposal on March 13 and recommended a revised funding of only Rs 1.51 lakh crore. The committee also slashed the total project cost by Rs 41,000 crore, approving an outlay of Rs 8.69 lakh crore instead of the Rs 9.10 lakh crore originally proposed.

• Since the Jal Jeevan Mission is co-financed equally by the Centre and the states, this cut in Central funding could shift a greater financial burden onto state governments

Government Schemes related to Water   Among the various initiatives under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, the Namami Gange Programme and river interlinking projects hold significant importance. Hence, it is essential for aspirants to not only be familiar with these schemes but also grasp the concept of river interlinking itself. In fact, a previous Prelims question was based on the Godavari-Krishna river interlinking, highlighting the relevance of such topics. As a result, gaining a clear understanding of the Ken-Betwa river linking project is also crucial for exam preparation

 

3. Namami Ganga Programme

 

• The Namami Gange Programme is a comprehensive river conservation initiative launched as a flagship mission by the Union Government in June 2014. It aims to achieve two primary goals: the reduction of pollution and the revival and preservation of the Ganga River, recognized as India’s national river.

• The programme is built on several core components, which include:

  • Development of sewage treatment infrastructure

  • Revitalization of riverfront areas

  • Cleaning of the river surface to remove floating waste

  • Promotion and protection of biodiversity

  • Expansion of afforestation along the river basin

  • Enhancing public engagement and awareness

  • Monitoring of industrial waste discharge

  • Transformation of villages along the Ganga into model Ganga Grams

 

4. Interlinking of rivers (Ken-betwa river)

 

 

• River interlinking refers to a large-scale water resource management approach where water is deliberately redirected from regions with excess availability to those facing water scarcity.

• This method typically involves connecting river basins using infrastructure such as canals, reservoirs, and pipelines. These inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) projects are designed to improve irrigation capacity, support flood management, and boost water availability in areas prone to drought.

• On December 25, 2024, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, marking the 100th birth anniversary of former PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee.

• The project’s primary goal is to irrigate the drought-prone Bundelkhand region by channeling excess water from the Ken River in Madhya Pradesh to the Betwa River in Uttar Pradesh. Both rivers eventually feed into the Yamuna River, and are classified as its right-bank tributaries.

• The Union Cabinet approved a budget of Rs 44,605 crore for the KBLP. It will be implemented in two phases:

  • Phase I includes the construction of the Daudhan Dam, a 221-km-long Ken-Betwa Link Canal, and associated infrastructure.

  • Phase II will involve the development of the Lower Orr Dam, the Bina Complex Project, and the Kotha Barrage.

• A section of the proposed infrastructure will pass through the Panna Tiger Reserve, raising environmental concerns due to the potential submergence of a part of this ecologically sensitive tiger habitat.

• Significantly, the KBLP is the first river interlinking project to be implemented under the National Perspective Plan, which was introduced in 1980. This larger plan includes 16 river links in the Peninsular region, and another 14 links proposed under the Himalayan component

 

Yamuna river   Yamuna is a tributary of River Ganga. It has four main tributaries in the Himalayan region: Rishi Ganga, Hanuman Ganga, Tons, and Giri. In the plains, the main tributaries are Hindon, Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken. Tons is the largest tributary of Yamuna. Other small tributaries of the Yamuna River include the Uttangan, Sengar and the Rind.

 

 

5. Constitution on Water

 

Right to Water as a Fundamental Right in India

The right to access clean and safe drinking water in India is considered part of the fundamental rights framework, particularly under Article 21 of the Constitution, which guarantees the Right to Life. This interpretation is derived from connected rights such as the right to food, right to health, and the right to a clean environment.

• In the landmark Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India (2000) case, the Supreme Court emphasized that access to water is a basic human necessity, integral to the right to life. It also stated that the right to a healthy environment and sustainable development are essential components of human rights under Article 21.

• Similarly, in the State of Karnataka v. State of Andhra Pradesh (2000) case, the Court reiterated that the right to water is part and parcel of the right to life, thus making it a fundamental right

 

Directive Principles Related to Water and Environment

• Article 39(b) under the Directive Principles of State Policy directs the State to ensure that material resources, including water, are equitably distributed to promote the common good.

• Article 48A calls upon the State to actively work towards the protection and enhancement of the environment, including forests and wildlife, which indirectly contributes to water conservation

Environmental Duties of Citizens

• Article 51A(g), which falls under Fundamental Duties, obligates every citizen to safeguard and improve the natural environment, specifically mentioning rivers, lakes, forests, and wildlife. It also encourages compassion for living beings

Legal Provisions for Water Dispute Resolution

• Article 262 empowers Parliament to enact laws for resolving inter-State river water disputes. According to:

  • Clause (1): Parliament can legislate for the adjudication of conflicts over the use, distribution, or control of inter-State river waters.

  • Clause (2): Parliament may restrict judicial intervention, including that of the Supreme Court, in such matters.

  This article served as the constitutional basis for the enactment of the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956, aimed at resolving such disputes

 

Constitutional Powers over Water – State and Union Roles

• Entry 17 of the State List (List II), Seventh Schedule grants states the authority to legislate on water-related issues like irrigation, canals, drainage, and water supply, subject to the Union’s jurisdiction under Entry 56 of List I.

• Entry 56 of the Union List (List I), Seventh Schedule allows the central government to regulate and develop inter-State rivers and river valleys when declared to be in the public interest by Parliament

 

 

For Prelims: Jal jeevan Mission, Directive Principles of State Policy   For Mains: GS II - Government Schemes on Water

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

CYBERCRIME

 

 

1. Context

 

 

UNION HOME Minister Amit Shah on Monday said they have introduced the new e-Zero FIR that automatically converts cyber financial crime complaints with a cheating value above Rs 10 lakh, registered on the 1930 helpline or the National Cybercrime Reporting Portal (NCRP), into FIRs.

 

2. About cybercrime

 

Cybercrime is essentially any illegal activity that involves computers, networks, or digital devices. Criminals can use these tools to steal data, commit fraud, disrupt computer systems, or cause other harm. Some common types of cybercrime include:

• Stealing someone's personal information like their name, Social Security number, or credit card details to impersonate them and commit fraud.
• Tricking people into giving up their personal information or clicking on malicious links by disguising emails or websites as legitimate ones.
• Malicious software that can be installed on a computer to steal data, damage files, or disrupt operations.
• Gaining unauthorized access to a computer system or network to steal data, install malware, or cause damage.

 

3. What is NCRP?

 

The National Cybercrime Reporting Portal is an online platform established by the government of India to facilitate the reporting of cybercrimes by citizens. The portal allows individuals to report incidents of cybercrime in a streamlined and accessible manner.

Key features and functions of the National Cybercrime Reporting Portal include

• Individuals can report various types of cybercrimes such as online harassment, financial fraud, ransomware attacks, and identity theft. The portal provides specific categories for different types of cyber incidents to ensure proper documentation and handling.
• The portal places a special emphasis on crimes related to women and children, providing a dedicated section to report cases of online harassment, child pornography, and other related offences.
• The portal allows users to report crimes anonymously if they choose, ensuring the confidentiality and privacy of the complainant.
• Once a complaint is filed, the portal provides a tracking number which can be used to follow up on the status of the complaint.
• The portal offers resources and guidelines on how to protect oneself from cybercrime, as well as information on legal recourse and support available for victims.

 

4. What is the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C)?

 

The Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C), established by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), is essentially India's central command centre for combating cybercrime.

Functions

• The I4C serves as a focal point for coordinating efforts between various Law Enforcement Agencies (LEAs) across the country to tackle cybercrime effectively.
• It facilitates the exchange of information on cybercrime investigations, cyber threat intelligence, and best practices among LEAs. This allows for a more unified approach to combating cyber threats.
• The I4C is citizen-centric. It played a role in launching the National Cybercrime Reporting Portal (NCRP) which allows people to report cybercrime complaints online. There's also a National Cybercrime Helpline (1930) to report incidents and get assistance.
• The I4C identifies the need for adapting cyber laws to keep pace with evolving technology. They recommend amendments to existing laws and suggest the creation of new ones if necessary.
• The I4C works with academia and research institutes to develop new technologies and forensic tools to aid in cybercrime investigations.
• They promote collaboration between the government, industry, and academia to raise awareness about cybercrime and develop standard operating procedures (SOPs) for containing and responding to cyberattacks.

5. What is the Budapest Convention?

 

The Budapest Convention, also known as the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime, is the world's first international treaty specifically designed to address cybercrime. It came into effect in 2004 with three main objectives:

1. The convention aims to improve how countries investigate cybercrime by setting standards for collecting electronic evidence and fostering cooperation between law enforcement agencies.
2. It facilitates cooperation among member states in tackling cybercrime. This includes sharing information, assisting with investigations, and extraditing cybercriminals.
3. The convention encourages member countries to harmonize their national laws related to cybercrime. This creates a more unified approach to defining and prosecuting cyber offences.

India's Stand: India is not currently a party to the Budapest Convention. There are concerns that some provisions, like data sharing with foreign law enforcement agencies, might infringe on India's national sovereignty. India has also argued that it wasn't involved in drafting the initial convention.

 

6. What is the Global Cybersecurity Index?

 

The Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI) is an initiative by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) to measure and rank the cybersecurity capabilities of countries around the world. The index provides insights into the commitment of countries to cybersecurity at a global level, assessing their strengths and identifying areas for improvement. The key aspects of the Global Cybersecurity Index

Purpose

• To promote cybersecurity awareness and foster a global culture of cybersecurity.
• To encourage countries to enhance their cybersecurity infrastructure and strategies.
• To facilitate knowledge sharing and cooperation among nations.

Assessment Criteria

 The GCI evaluates countries based on five main pillars:

1. Examines the existence of cybersecurity legislation and regulatory frameworks.
2. Assesses the implementation of cybersecurity technologies and technical institutions.
3.  Looks at national cybersecurity strategies, policies, and dedicated agencies.
4. Evaluate the availability of cybersecurity education, training, and awareness programs.
5. Measures the extent of international and national cooperation in cybersecurity efforts.

Methodology

 

The assessment is conducted through a comprehensive survey sent to ITU member states, followed by analysis and validation of the responses. The countries are then scored and ranked based on their overall cybersecurity posture.

Impact

 The GCI serves several important functions:

• Provides a benchmarking tool for countries to assess their cybersecurity maturity.
• Helps policymakers identify gaps and prioritize areas for improvement.
• Encourages international cooperation and collaboration to tackle global cyber threats.

The GCI reports typically highlight the growing importance of cybersecurity due to increasing digital transformation and the rising number of cyber threats. They showcase best practices and successful initiatives from top-ranking countries, serving as models for others.

 

7. The challenges related to cyber security in India

 

India faces numerous challenges related to cybersecurity, reflecting its rapidly growing digital economy and increasing reliance on technology. 

Increasing Cyber Threats:

• India has seen a significant rise in cybercrimes, including hacking, phishing, ransomware attacks, and identity theft. Sophisticated, state-sponsored attacks targeting critical infrastructure and sensitive data are becoming more common.
• Many public and private sector systems rely on outdated technology, making them vulnerable to attacks. Inadequate implementation of robust cybersecurity measures and protocols leaves systems exposed.
• There is a significant gap in the number of trained cybersecurity experts needed to protect against and respond to cyber threats. Ongoing education and training programs are insufficient to keep pace with evolving cyber threats.
• The absence of a unified regulatory framework complicates cybersecurity management. While laws like the IT Act 2000 exist, enforcement and implementation remain inconsistent and weak.
• Many individuals and small businesses lack awareness of basic cybersecurity practices. Practices like using weak passwords, not updating software, and falling for phishing scams are common.
• The absence of robust data protection legislation makes it difficult to safeguard personal and sensitive data. Ensuring privacy and protection of personal information remains a significant challenge.
• Effective cybersecurity often requires international cooperation, which is currently limited and inconsistent. Cross-border cyber threats and geopolitical tensions complicate collaboration and response efforts.
• The rapid adoption of IoT devices, often with minimal security features, increases vulnerabilities. While AI can enhance security, it also introduces new risks and attack vectors.
• Sectors like banking, healthcare, and energy are increasingly targeted, requiring enhanced protection measures. Ensuring coordinated efforts among various governmental and private entities involved in critical infrastructure protection is challenging.
• Limited financial resources allocated for cybersecurity initiatives hinder the development and implementation of comprehensive security measures.
• Staying abreast of the latest cybersecurity technologies and tools is difficult due to financial and logistical constraints.

 

8. Way Forward

 

Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach involving improved regulatory frameworks, enhanced public awareness, investment in cybersecurity infrastructure, international cooperation, and the development of a skilled workforce. By strengthening these areas, India can better safeguard its digital ecosystem against the growing threat of cybercrime.

 

 

For Prelims: Cyber Crime, Artificial Intelligence, Internet of Things, Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre,  National Cybercrime Reporting Portal, Budapest Convention, Global Cybersecurity Index, International Telecommunication union For Mains:  1. India witnesses a high number of cybercrimes originating from Southeast Asia. Analyze the challenges this poses for Indian Law Enforcement Agencies and suggest measures to improve cross-border cooperation in tackling cybercrime. (250 words) 2. What are the key functions of the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C)? Critically evaluate its effectiveness in combating cybercrime in India. (250 words) 3. The rise of Internet of Things (IoT) devices introduces new vulnerabilities in cyberspace. Analyze the cybersecurity challenges posed by IoT and suggest measures to mitigate these risks. (250 words)

 

Previous Year Questions   1. In India, under cyber insurance for individuals, which of the following benefits are generally covered, in addition to payment for the loss of funds and other benefits? (UPSC 2020) 1. Cost of restoration of the computer system in case of malware disrupting access to one's computer 2. Cost of a new computer if some miscreant wilfully damages it, if proved so 3. Cost of hiring a specialized consultant to minimize the loss in case of cyber extortion 4. Cost of defence in the Court of Law if any third party files a suit Select the correct answer using the code given below: A.1, 2 and 4 only  B.1, 3 and 4 only  C.2 and 3 only   D.1, 2, 3 and 4   2. Global Cyber Security Index (GCI) 2020 is released by which of the following organizations? (RRB Clerk Mains 2021) A. World Bank B. United Nations Development Programme C. International Telecommunication Union D. World Economic Forum E. None of these Answers: 1-D, 2-C

 

Source: The Indian Express