1. Spreading lies about or posting embarrassing photos or videos of someone on social media.
2. Sending hurtful, abusive or threatening messages, images or videos via messaging platforms.
3. Impersonating someone and sending mean messages to others on their behalf or through fake accounts.

• Face-to-face bullying and cyberbullying can often happen alongside each other. But cyberbullying leaves a digital footprint a record that can prove useful and provide evidence to help the abuse.

3. Effects of cyberbullying

• When bullying happens online it can feel as if you are being attacked everywhere, even inside your own home.
• It can seem like there's no escape. The effects can last a long time and affect a person in many ways:

1. Mentally: Feeling upset, embarrassed, stupid, even afraid or angry
2. Emotionally: feeling ashamed or losing interest in the things you love
3. Physically: tired (loss of sleep) or experiencing symptoms like stomach aches and headaches

• The feeling of being laughed at or harassed by others can prevent people from speaking up or trying to deal with the problem.
• In extreme cases, cyberbullying can even lead to people taking their own lives.
• Cyberbullying can affect us in many ways. But these can be overcome and people can regain their confidence and health.

4. Affect on mental health

• When you experience cyberbullying you might start to feel ashamed, nervous, anxious and insecure about what people say or think about you.
• This can lead to withdrawing from friends and family, negative thoughts and self-talk, feeling guilty about things you did or did not do or feeling that you are being judged negatively.
• Feeling lonely, overwhelmed, frequent headaches, nausea or stomachaches are also common.
• You can lose your motivation to do the things that you usually enjoy doing and feel isolated from the people you love and trust.
• This can perpetuate negative feelings and thoughts which can adversely affect mental health and well-being.
• Skipping school is another common effect of cyberbullying and can affect the mental health of young people who turn to substances like alcohol and drugs or violent behaviour to deal with their psychological and physical pain.
• Taking to a friend, family member or school counsellor you trust can be a first step to getting help.
• The effects of cyberbullying on mental health can vary depending on the medium through which it happens.
• For example, bullying via text messaging or through pictures or videos on social media platforms has proven to be very harmful to adolescents.

Source: UNICEF.org

mRNA

• mRNA carries genetic information from the DNA in the cell's nucleus to the ribosomes, which are the cellular machinery responsible for assembling proteins
• The process of creating mRNA from a DNA template is called transcription. During transcription, a specific segment of DNA is used as a template to synthesize a complementary mRNA strand.
• The mRNA strand is synthesized in such a way that it represents a copy of the genetic information encoded in the DNA, with thymine (T) in DNA being replaced by uracil (U) in mRNA
• mRNA consists of a series of nucleotide triplets called codons. Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid or serves as a start or stop signal for protein synthesis.
• There are 64 possible codons, each specifying one of the 20 different amino acids used in protein synthesis
• Once mRNA is synthesized, it exits the nucleus and moves to the cytoplasm, where ribosomes read the codons on the mRNA strand to assemble amino acids in the correct order, forming a polypeptide chain. This chain eventually folds into a functional protein.
• mRNA is relatively short-lived within the cell. It is synthesized when needed for protein production and is then rapidly degraded once its role in protein synthesis is complete.
• mRNA sequences can vary among individuals and among cells within an individual. This variability allows cells to produce specific proteins in response to various signals and environmental conditions.

• The function of an mRNA vaccine is to stimulate an immune response in the body against a specific pathogen, such as a virus, by introducing a small piece of synthetic messenger RNA (mRNA) that encodes a harmless piece of the pathogen's protein
• Scientists design and synthesize a short piece of mRNA in the laboratory. This synthetic mRNA contains the genetic instructions for producing a specific protein that is found on the surface of the target pathogen
• To protect the fragile mRNA and facilitate its entry into human cells, the synthetic mRNA is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles. These lipid nanoparticles serve as delivery vehicles for the mRNA
• The mRNA vaccine is administered to the recipient through a standard intramuscular injection, usually into the upper arm
• The lipid nanoparticles containing the synthetic mRNA are taken up by host cells at the injection site
• Once inside the host cells, the synthetic mRNA is recognized by the cell's protein synthesis machinery, including ribosomes.
• The ribosomes read the mRNA sequence and start producing the specific protein encoded by the mRNA.
• In the case of mRNA vaccines, this protein is a piece of the pathogen (e.g., a part of the spike protein of the virus).
• The newly produced viral protein is displayed on the surface of the host cells. This protein is harmless and cannot cause the disease itself, but it serves as a marker for the immune system.
• The immune system of the recipient recognizes the displayed viral protein as foreign and potentially harmful. This recognition triggers a robust immune response, including the production of antibodies specific to the viral protein

• While mRNA (messenger RNA) technology has shown great promise, especially in the development of COVID-19 vaccines, it is not without its challenges and limitations
•  mRNA molecules are inherently fragile and can degrade easily. This necessitates stringent storage and transportation requirements at very low temperatures for some mRNA vaccines, like the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines.
• Maintaining the "cold chain" can be logistically challenging, especially in regions with limited infrastructure.
• The production of mRNA vaccines, particularly for novel vaccines, can be costly. This cost can impact access to these vaccines, especially in lower-income countries
• mRNA vaccines typically have a shorter shelf-life compared to some other types of vaccines. This can pose challenges in terms of distribution and administration, particularly in regions with limited healthcare infrastructure

PSLV

1. Context

2. History of PSLV

• The PSLV is one of ISRO’s most reliable vehicles, having launched hundreds of satellites with only three failures or partial failures since 1993.
• Over the years, various improvements have been made to it, making it a stand-out satellite carrier.
  Launch vehicles are meant only to deposit satellites into space, after which they become useless.
• They either burn up in space or add to the ever-increasing concern of space debris. The PSLV, however, is now technologically advanced enough to have one component that can stay on in space to research after it has delivered its satellite.
• The current mission includes this component, POEM-2, which stands for PSLV Orbital Experimental Module. 

3. What is PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle)?

• PSLV is the most reliable rocket used by ISRO to date. Its first launch was in 1994, and it has been ISRO’s main rocket ever since.
• Apart from Indian satellites, it also carries satellites from other nations into space, like in the current mission, where it carried payloads from Singapore.
• The reason for this is that apart from being reliable, the PSLV is also more affordable than the launch vehicles of many other countries.
• After its first successful launch in October 1994, PSLV emerged as a reliable and versatile workhorse launch vehicle in India.
• The vehicle has launched numerous Indian and foreign customer satellites.
• Besides, the vehicle successfully launched two spacecraft, Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and Mars Orbiter Spacecraft in 2013, that later traveled to Moon and Mars respectively.
• Chandrayaan-1 and MOM were feathers in the hat of PSLV. PSLV earned its title ‘the workhorse of ISRO by consistently delivering various satellites into low earth orbits. 

4. Various Components of PSLV

• Rockets have several detachable energy-providing parts. They burn different kinds of fuels to power the rocket.
• Once their fuel is exhausted, they detach from the rocket and fall off, often burning off in the atmosphere due to air friction, and getting destroyed.
• Only a small part of the original rocket goes to the intended destination of the satellite.
• Once the satellite is finally ejected, this last part of the rocket either becomes part of space debris or once again burns off after falling into the atmosphere.
• PSLV has four parts namely PS1, a solid rocket motor augmented by 6 solid strap-on boosters; PS2, a storable liquid rocket engine, known as the Vikas engine; PS3, a solid rocket motor that provides the upper stages high thrust after the atmospheric phase of the launch; and PS4, the uppermost stage consisting of two Earth storable liquid engines.
• As technology evolves, the effort is to make the various parts of a rocket reusable. PSLV’s PS4 has been able to achieve this. 

5. PSLV's Most recent Missions

• The rocket launched recently carried TeLEOS-2 as the primary satellite and Lumelite-4 as a co-passenger satellite.
• While TeLEOS-2 will “be used to support the satellite imagery requirements of various agencies within the Government of Singapore”, Lumelite-4 “aims to augment Singapore’s navigation maritime safety and benefit the global shipping community.
• POEM-2, meanwhile, will be utilized as an orbital platform to carry out scientific experiments through non-separating payloads.
• The payloads belong to ISRO/Department of Space, Bellatrix, Dhruva Space, and the Indian Institute of Astrophysics.

6. Why do satellites need launch Vehicles?

• The Launch vehicle rockets have powerful propulsion systems that generate the huge amount of energy required to lift heavy objects like satellites into space, overcoming the gravitational pull of the earth.
• Satellites, or payloads as they are often called, sit inside the rocket and are ejected once they reach their intended orbit in space.
• Most satellites have small propulsion systems and carry small amounts of fuel, because they encounter very little drag, or force, in outer space.
• What they do carry are the instruments needed for the scientific work for which they are being sent into space. 

Previous year Question

PRESIDENTIAL REFERENCE

 

 

 

1. Context

 

President Droupadi Murmu, has made a reference to the Supreme Court, under Article 143 of the Constitution, on certain questions of law and has sought its opinion on those questions.

 

2. Historical context of presidential reference

 

The Supreme Court's advisory role, as outlined in Article 143, traces its origins to the Government of India Act of 1935. This act granted the Governor-General the authority to seek the opinion of the federal court on significant legal matters.

A comparable feature exists in the Canadian Constitution, where the Supreme Court of Canada is empowered to give advisory opinions on legal issues referred by either the federal or provincial governments. In contrast, the U.S. Supreme Court has consistently refused to issue advisory opinions to the executive branch, adhering strictly to the principle of separation of powers embedded in the American Constitution

Under Article 143 of the Constitution, the President has the authority to seek the Supreme Court’s opinion on any legal or factual issue deemed to be of public significance. This referral is made based on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers. According to Article 145, such matters must be examined by a bench comprising at least five judges of the Supreme Court. Following the hearing, the Court may deliver its opinion as it deems appropriate. While the opinion is not legally binding on the President and does not set a judicial precedent, it holds considerable persuasive value. Consequently, it is generally respected and adhered to by both the executive and the judiciary

3. Past instances

 

• Since 1950, approximately fifteen presidential references have been made to the Supreme Court, excluding the most recent one. Below are brief summaries of some notable opinions delivered by the Court in response to these references.
• The first such reference came in the Delhi Laws Act case (1951), where the Court outlined the concept of delegated legislation, allowing the legislature to delegate certain law-making powers to the executive for efficient law implementation.
• In the Kerala Education Bill case (1958), the Court established the principle of harmonious interpretation between Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy, while also clarifying the constitutional safeguards for minority-run educational institutions under Article 30.
• In the Berubari Union case (1960), the Court held that any transfer or acquisition of Indian territory requires a constitutional amendment as per Article 368. The Keshav Singh case (1965) addressed the scope of legislative powers and privileges.
• In the Presidential Election case (1974), the Court ruled that elections for the President must proceed even if there are vacancies in the electoral college due to the dissolution of state assemblies.
• The Special Courts Bill reference (1978) was particularly important, as the Court clarified that it can choose not to respond to a reference, that the questions posed must be clear and precise, and that the judiciary must not intrude into Parliament's domain when giving its opinion.
• The Third Judges case (1998) resulted in a comprehensive set of guidelines shaping the collegium system for appointing judges to the higher judiciary.
• Although the Supreme Court is not bound to respond to every reference, it has declined to provide an opinion on only one occasion — in 1993, concerning the Ram Janmabhoomi dispute

 

 4. Current reference

 

• The current presidential reference stems from a recent Supreme Court ruling that established specific timelines for the President and State Governors to act on Bills passed by State legislatures.
• In that judgment, the Court also asserted that the decisions made by the President and Governors regarding such Bills are open to judicial scrutiny. This reference has posed 14 key questions, mainly focusing on the interpretation of Articles 200 and 201 of the Constitution.
• The central government has raised concerns about whether courts can impose timelines when the Constitution itself does not prescribe any. It also questions whether the actions of the President and Governors, taken before a Bill becomes law, can be subjected to judicial review. Additionally, the reference seeks clarity on the scope of the Supreme Court’s powers under Article 142.
• This legal dispute has largely been driven by political tensions between the Union government and Opposition-led State governments. In its judgment, the Supreme Court had referred to the timelines mentioned in a Ministry of Home Affairs Office Memorandum concerning the President's assent to Bills.
• Notably, in the Cauvery dispute reference (1992), the Court had stated that, in an advisory capacity, it does not have the authority to review its previous rulings.
• Nevertheless, a definitive opinion in the present case is expected to bring clarity to important constitutional questions, thereby aiding in the effective functioning of federalism and democratic governance

 

5. Way Forward

 

The advisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court under Article 143 plays a vital role in clarifying complex constitutional questions and ensuring the smooth functioning of India's democratic framework. While not binding, the Court’s opinions carry significant persuasive authority and are generally respected by both the executive and judiciary. Historical references, from the Delhi Laws Act case to the Third Judges case, have helped shape important legal doctrines on delegated legislation, federalism, judicial appointments, and legislative privileges

 

For Prelims: Article 143, Supreme Court's advisory jurisdiction   For Mains: General Studies II - Indian Polity & Governance

 

 

 

Previous Year Questions   Prelims 1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017) 1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body. 2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections. 3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognised political parties. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only          B. 2 only              C. 2 and 3 only                D. 3 only Answer: D 2. With reference to the Constitution of India, prohibitions or limitations or provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142. It could mean which one of the following? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) The decisions taken by the Election Commission of India while discharging its duties cannot be challenged in any court of law. (b) The Supreme Court of India is not constrained in the exercise of its powers by laws made by the Parliament. (c) In the event of a grave financial crisis in the country, the President of India can declare a Financial Emergency without the counsel from the Cabinet. (d) State Legislatures cannot make laws on certain matters without the concurrence of the Union Legislature. Answer: B 3. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021) 1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies. 2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies. 3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only         B. 2 only           C. 1 and 3             D. 2 and 3   4. Consider the following statements about Electoral Bond Scheme 2018: (RPSC RAS Prelims 2018) (A) The aim of this scheme is to bring about transparency in the funding process of political parties. (B) Only the political parties recognized by the Election Commission which secured not less than one per cent of the votes polled in the last general election to the House of People or the Legislative Assembly of the State shall be eligible to receive the Electoral Bonds. (C) Electoral Bonds shall be valid for fifteen calendar days from the date of issue. (D) The Electoral Bond deposited by an eligible political party in its account shall be credited on the same day. Which of the above statements are correct? 1.  Only (A) and (B)      2.  (A), (B), (C) and (D) 3. Only (B), (C) and (D) 4. Only (A), (C) and (D) Answer: 2   5. With reference to the PM CARES Fund, consider the following statements: (AFCAT 27 2022) I. The amount collected by it directly goes to the Consolidated Fund of India. II. It can avail donations from the foreign contribution and donations to fund can also avail 100% tax exemption. Which of the above statements is/are correct? A. I only            B. II only           C. Both I and II        D. Neither I nor II   Answer: B   6. The Prime Minister's National Relief Fund is operated by which one of the following bodies?  (CDS 2019) A. The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) B. The National Disaster Management Authority C. The Ministry of Finance D. The National Development Council (NDC) Answer: A Mains 1. In the light of recent controversy regarding the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVM), what are the challenges before the Election Commission of India to ensure the trustworthiness of elections in India? (UPSC 2018) 2. Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct. ( UPSC 2022)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

EARTH OBSERVATION SATELLITES (EOS)

 

 

1. Context

In a rare failure, India’s main rocket PSLV developed problems a few minutes after take-off and failed to place earth observation satellite EOS-09 into the intended orbit in an early morning launch on Sunday

 

2.What is Earth observation satellites?

 

• Earth observation satellites, also known as Earth remote sensing satellites, are designed to monitor and collect data about the Earth from orbit. This category includes both military spy satellites and those intended for non-military purposes, such as environmental monitoring, weather forecasting, cartography, and more.
• These satellites are crucial for overseeing and safeguarding our environment, managing resources, responding to global humanitarian crises, and supporting sustainable development. They offer valuable insights into various aspects like ocean salinity, ice thickness, crop health, and air quality.
• The most common type of Earth observation satellites are Earth-imaging satellites, which capture images similar to aerial photographs. However, some EO satellites conduct remote sensing without creating images, such as those using GNSS radio occultation techniques

 

3.Types of Earth Observation Satellites

Earth observation satellites are crucial tools for monitoring our planet. They provide valuable data for various applications, including weather forecasting, environmental monitoring, and disaster management

Earth observation (EO) satellites can be categorized into two main types depending on their imaging techniques: passive and active.

• Passive Satellites: These satellites detect radiation that is reflected off the Earth's surface, including visible light and infrared. They generally cannot operate effectively through cloud cover.

• Active Satellites: These satellites emit energy towards the Earth's surface and measure the reflected signal to gather information. They are capable of penetrating cloud cover to obtain data

4. How do earth observation satellites collect data?

 

• Earth observation satellites operate in various orbits, providing different viewpoints of the Earth. Due to constraints in power and storage, most satellites do not continuously collect data.
• Some satellites provide consistent and reliable data, while others gather it intermittently over time.
• The collected data is stored on the satellite until it can be transmitted to a ground station when it comes into view.
• The duration from image capture to data availability can range from a month to just a few minutes, with advancements in technology reducing this time.
• As multiple companies own these satellites, there are various data providers with distinct pricing models.
• ISRO has deployed numerous operational remote sensing satellites. Currently, thirteen of these satellites are in sun-synchronous orbits, while four are in geostationary orbits.
• The data collected from these satellites supports a range of applications including agriculture, water resources, urban planning, rural development, mineral exploration, environmental monitoring, forestry, ocean resource management, and disaster response

5. Advantages of low Earth satellites

 

Earth observation satellites offer numerous advantages across various fields due to their ability to collect and transmit data from space.

 

Here are some of the key benefits:

• Climate Change: Track changes in climate patterns, ice melt, sea level rise, and greenhouse gas concentrations.
• Natural Disasters: Monitor and assess the impact of natural disasters like hurricanes, earthquakes, and floods in real-time.
• Agriculture: Provide data on crop health, soil conditions, and irrigation needs, helping optimize agricultural practices and increase yields.
• Water Resources: Monitor water bodies, track changes in water availability, and manage water resources more effectively.
• Land Use: Assist in urban planning and land use management by providing detailed imagery and data on land development and changes.
• Infrastructure: Support infrastructure development by providing accurate and up-to-date information on land and environmental conditions

 

 

For Prelims: LOS, PSLV, GSLV For Mains: GS III - Science & technology

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018) 1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites. 2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth. 3. GSLV Mk III is a four- staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 C. 1 and 2 D. 3 only Answer: A

Source: PIB, Business Standard