The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has delivered several landmark judgments that have had a significant impact on environmental protection and conservation in India. Here are some of the important landmark judgments delivered by the NGT:

• Vardhaman Kaushik v. Union of India (2013): This case dealt with the issue of groundwater depletion due to illegal extraction by industries in Uttar Pradesh. The NGT directed the closure of industries that were extracting groundwater without proper permissions and ordered the payment of compensation for environmental damage caused.
• Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd. v. Rohit Prajapati & Ors. (2014): In this case, the NGT ordered the closure of an industrial unit in Gujarat for releasing untreated effluents into a water body, causing pollution and harm to the environment and public health.
• M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2014): The NGT issued a landmark judgment in this case regarding the pollution of the Yamuna River. It directed several measures to clean and rejuvenate the river, including the establishment of sewage treatment plants and the regulation of industries contributing to pollution.
• Subhash Chandra Sharma v. Union of India (2015): This case focused on the issue of air pollution caused by solid waste burning in open areas. The NGT imposed a ban on burning waste in open spaces and directed municipal authorities to take measures to manage waste effectively.
• Raghu Nath Sharma v. State of Himachal Pradesh (2016): The NGT ordered the closure of illegal hotels and structures in the eco-sensitive Rohtang Pass area of Himachal Pradesh to protect the fragile Himalayan ecosystem.
• Yamuna Muktikaran Abhiyan v. Union of India (2017): This case dealt with the rejuvenation of the Yamuna River and led to the NGT issuing directions to clean and restore the river, including measures to prevent encroachments and pollution.
• M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2017): The NGT banned the use of disposable plastic in Delhi and the National Capital Region (NCR) and directed authorities to take steps to prevent the use and sale of such plastic.
• Shailesh Singh v. Hotel Holiday Regency (2019): In this case, the NGT imposed heavy fines on a hotel in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, for causing air pollution by running diesel generators without proper emission control measures.
• Subhash Chandran vs. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (2020): This judgment highlighted the importance of safeguarding coastal areas and wetlands from unauthorized construction and development activities, emphasizing the need for stringent environmental norms.
• In Re: Report by Comptroller and Auditor General of India (2021): The NGT directed the formulation of guidelines for the regulation of groundwater extraction and management to prevent overexploitation and depletion.

5. What is a dissolved oxygen level?

• Dissolved oxygen (DO) level refers to the concentration of oxygen gas (O2) that is dissolved in a liquid, typically water.
• It is a crucial parameter in aquatic ecosystems as it directly affects the survival and well-being of aquatic organisms.
• In natural water bodies like lakes, rivers, and oceans, oxygen dissolves from the atmosphere through processes such as diffusion and aeration.
• Aquatic plants, algae, and phytoplankton also contribute to the production of oxygen through photosynthesis. However, the level of dissolved oxygen can fluctuate based on various factors, including temperature, altitude, water flow, pollution, and organic matter decomposition.
• Dissolved oxygen is essential for aquatic organisms because they rely on it for their respiration process, similar to how animals breathe oxygen from the air.
• Insufficient levels of dissolved oxygen can lead to hypoxia, a condition where organisms are deprived of the oxygen they need to survive. This can result in stress, reduced growth, reproductive issues, and even mortality in aquatic species.

Different species of aquatic organisms have varying tolerance levels for dissolved oxygen. For example:

• Fish and other aquatic animals often require dissolved oxygen levels between 4 to 6 milligrams per liter (mg/L) to thrive.
• Some species of fish, insects, and other aquatic organisms can tolerate lower levels of dissolved oxygen, even below 2 mg/L, while others require higher concentrations.

6. What are chemical oxygen demand and biological oxygen demand?

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

• COD is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize and break down organic and inorganic substances present in water.
• It provides an indication of the total amount of pollutants that can be chemically oxidized by a strong oxidizing agent. COD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed.
• COD is useful in assessing the overall pollution load in a water sample, including both biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.
• It is commonly used for industrial wastewater monitoring, as it provides a rapid estimation of the organic content and potential pollution levels. However, COD does not differentiate between different types of pollutants or indicate the potential impact on aquatic life.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):

• BOD measures the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms (bacteria) during the biological degradation of organic matter in water.
• It is a key indicator of the level of biodegradable organic pollutants present in water. BOD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed over a specific time period, usually 5 days (BOD₅).
• BOD is particularly important in assessing the impact of organic pollution on aquatic ecosystems.
• High BOD levels indicate that a water body may have a significant amount of organic pollutants, which can lead to oxygen depletion as microorganisms break down the organic matter. This oxygen depletion, known as hypoxia, can harm aquatic organisms and disrupt the ecological balance of the water body.

Comparing BOD and COD:

• BOD primarily measures the biologically degradable organic matter and provides information about the potential impact on aquatic life.
• COD measures both biologically and chemically degradable pollutants, giving an indication of the overall pollution load and oxygen demand.
• BOD is a more specific and ecologically relevant parameter, but it takes longer to determine (5 days), while COD can be measured more quickly.

For Prelims: National Green Tribunal (NGT), National Green Tribunal Act, of  2010, Dissolved oxygen (DO), Chemical Oxygen demand (COD), and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD). For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) as critical indicators for assessing water pollution and quality. (250 Words)

 

Previous year Question 1. How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)? (UPSC 2018) 1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by the executive order of the Government. 2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells, and aims to improve the quality of air in the country. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: B   2. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 was enacted in consonance with which of the following provisions of the Constitution of India? (UPSC 2012) 1. Right of a healthy environment, construed as a part of the Right to life under Article 21 2. Provision of grants for raising the level of administration in the Scheduled Areas for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1) 3. Powers and functions of Gram Sabha as mentioned under Article 243(A) Select the correct answer using the codes given below: A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A

Source: The Indian Express

 

INDIA-UAE

 

 

1. Context

India and the UAE on Tuesday agreed that “close cooperation between the defence industries” should be an “integral part” of the bilateral cooperation, the government said in a press note after Defence Minister Rajnath Singh met visiting Deputy Prime Minister and Defence Minister Sheikh Hamdan bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum

 

2. India and UAE

ndia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) have historically enjoyed friendly and cooperative relations, which have strengthened over time. The relationship encompasses various areas such as trade and investment, defense and security, energy cooperation, cultural exchanges, and people-to-people contacts.

Here are some key points about the India-UAE relations:

1. Economic Relations: The UAE is India's third-largest trading partner and one of the major investors in India. Bilateral trade between the two countries has been growing steadily, with a focus on sectors like energy, information technology, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and agriculture. The UAE is also a significant source of remittances for India due to the large Indian diaspora residing in the UAE.

2. Investment: The UAE has made substantial investments in India across sectors such as infrastructure, real estate, hospitality, logistics, and renewable energy. The Abu Dhabi Investment Authority (ADIA) and the Dubai-based DP World are prominent examples of UAE investments in India.

3. Energy Cooperation: The UAE is a crucial source of energy for India. The Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) supplies crude oil to Indian refineries, and both countries have explored opportunities for collaboration in the energy sector, including renewable energy projects.

4. Defense and Security: India and the UAE have enhanced cooperation in defense and security matters. They conduct joint military exercises, exchange intelligence, and cooperate in countering terrorism and maritime security. The UAE has also supported India's efforts to combat terrorism and extradite wanted individuals.

5. Strategic Partnership: In 2015, India and the UAE elevated their bilateral relationship to a "Comprehensive Strategic Partnership." This designation reflects the deepening ties and shared interests between the two countries.

6. Cultural Exchanges and People-to-People Contacts: There is a significant Indian community in the UAE, comprising professionals, skilled workers, and businesspeople. Both countries have encouraged cultural exchanges, tourism, and educational cooperation to strengthen people-to-people contacts and promote mutual understanding.

7. Diplomatic Engagements: High-level visits between India and the UAE have been frequent, reflecting the importance both countries attach to the relationship. The leaders of both countries have engaged in regular dialogues to enhance bilateral cooperation and address common challenges.

3. Why UAE is important to India?

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) holds significant importance to India for several reasons:

1. Economic Relations: The UAE is one of India's major trading partners and a significant source of investment. Bilateral trade between the two countries has been growing steadily, with the UAE being India's third-largest trading partner. The UAE's investments in India span various sectors, including infrastructure, real estate, hospitality, logistics, and renewable energy. This economic partnership contributes to India's economic growth and development.

2. Energy Security: The UAE is an important source of energy for India. It supplies crude oil to Indian refineries, helping to meet India's energy needs. Ensuring a stable and reliable energy supply is crucial for India's growing economy, and the UAE plays a significant role in fulfilling India's energy requirements.

3. Indian Diaspora: The UAE is home to a large Indian diaspora, comprising professionals, skilled workers, and businesspeople. The Indian community in the UAE plays a vital role in strengthening people-to-people ties and contributing to the UAE's economy through their work and remittances. The UAE's favorable policies towards the Indian community and its contributions have fostered a sense of goodwill and mutual understanding between the two countries.

4. Defense and Security Cooperation: India and the UAE have been strengthening their defense and security cooperation in recent years. They conduct joint military exercises, share intelligence, and collaborate in countering terrorism and ensuring maritime security. The UAE's support to India's counter-terrorism efforts and extradition of wanted individuals have been crucial in addressing shared security concerns.

5. Strategic Location: The UAE's geographic location at the crossroads of Asia, Europe, and Africa makes it an important hub for trade, connectivity, and investment. Its modern infrastructure, world-class ports, and air connectivity make it an attractive destination for Indian businesses looking to expand their reach globally. The UAE's strategic location serves as a gateway for India's trade with the Middle East, North Africa, and beyond.

6. Cultural Exchanges and Tourism: The UAE and India have fostered cultural exchanges and tourism, facilitating people-to-people contacts and enhancing mutual understanding. Millions of Indians visit the UAE for business, tourism, and religious purposes, strengthening the cultural and social ties between the two countries.

7. Diplomatic Engagements: India and the UAE maintain regular high-level engagements, with frequent visits by leaders and officials from both sides. These interactions help in deepening bilateral relations, addressing common challenges, and exploring new avenues of cooperation..

4. Way forward

Overall, the UAE's economic significance, energy cooperation, large Indian diaspora, defense collaboration, strategic location, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic engagements make it an important partner for India across various spheres. The two countries continue to strengthen their relationship for mutual benefit and shared prosperity.

 

For Prelims: India-UAE, Global food security, G20, I2U2, Public Distribution System, POSHAN Abhiyaan, Covid, Conflict and Climate, Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement,  For Mains:  1. Discuss India's role in ensuring global food security during the pandemic and post-pandemic times. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to the international trade of India at present, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2020)  1. India's merchandise exports are less than its merchandise imports. 2. India's imports of iron and steel, chemicals, fertilizers, and machinery have decreased in recent years. 3. India's exports of services are more than its imports of services. 4. India suffers from an overall trade/current deficit. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 and 2 only       B.  2 and 4 only      C. 3 only        D.  1, 3 and 4 only   Answer: D   2. Consider the following countries: (UPSC 2018) Australia Canada China India Japan USA Which of the above are among the ‘free-trade partners’ of ASEAN? (a) 1, 2, 4 and 5     (b) 3, 4, 5 and 6      (c) 1, 3, 4 and 5     (d) 2, 3, 4 and 6 Answer: C 3. The term ‘Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership’ often appears in the news in the context of the affairs of a group of countries known as (UPSC 2016) (a) G20           (b) ASEAN          (c) SCO         (d) SAARC Answer: B 4. The area known as ‘Golan Heights’ sometimes appears in the news in the context of the events related to ( UPSC 2015) (a) Central Asia   (b) Middle East   (c) South-East Asia    (d) Central Africa Answer: B 5. Which of the following are the objectives of ‘National Nutrition Mission’? (UPSC 2017) To create awareness relating to malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers. To reduce the incidence of anaemia among young children, adolescent girls and women. To promote the consumption of millets, coarse cereals and unpolished rice. To promote the consumption of poultry eggs. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only    (b) 1, 2 and 3 only    (c) 1, 2 and 4 only    (d) 3 and 4 only Answer: A

Source: indianexpress

 

 

GENOME INDIA PROJECT

1. Context 

Preliminary findings of the GenomeIndia project, which genotyped 10,074 healthy and unrelated Indians from 85 populations — 32 tribal and 53 non-tribal populations — across India, were published in the journal Nature Genetics on Tuesday. Blood samples were collected from nearly 20,000 individuals, of which DNA samples from 10,074 individuals were subjected to whole genome sequencing

2. About Genome Sequencing

• The human genome is the entire set of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) residing in the nucleus of every cell of the human body.
• It carries the complete genetic information responsible for the development and functioning of an organism.
• The DNA consists of a double-stranded molecule built up by four bases.
• While the sequence of base pairs is identical in all humans, there are differences in the genome of every human being that make them unique.
• The process of deciphering the order of base pairs, to decode the genetic fingerprint of a human is called genome sequencing.
• In 1990, a group of scientists began to work on determining the whole sequence of the human genome under the Human Genome Project.
• The Project released its latest version of the complete human genome in 2023, with a 0.3 per cent error margin.
• This shows that genomic sequencing has now evolved to a stage where large sequencers can process thousands of samples simultaneously.
• There are several approaches to genome sequencing, including whole genome sequencing.
• The process of whole genome sequencing, made possible by the Human Genome Project, now facilitates the reading of a person's genome to identify differences from the average human genome.

3. Applications of sequencing

• Genome sequencing has been used to evaluate rare disorders, preconditions for disorders and even cancer from the viewpoint of genetics, rather than as diseases of certain organs.
• Nearly 10, 000 diseases including cystic fibrosis and thalassemia are known to be the result of a single gene malfunctioning.
• In public health, however, sequencing has been used to read the codes of viruses.
• One of its first practical usages was in 2014 when a group of scientists from M.I.T and Harvard sequenced samples of Ebola from infected African patients to show how genomic data of viruses could reveal hidden pathways of transmission.

4. Effective response against COVID-19

• In January 2020, at the start of the pandemic, Chinese scientist YongZhen Zhang sequenced the genome of a novel pathogen causing infections in the city of Wuhan.
• Mr Zhang then shared it with his virologist friend Edward Holmes in Australia, who published the genomic code online.
• It was after this that virologists began evaluating the sequence to try and understand how to combat the virus, track the mutating variants and their intensity and spread and come up with a vaccine.
• To enable an effective response against COVID-19, researchers kept track of emerging variants, conducting further studies about their transmissibility, immune escape and potential to cause severe disease.
• Genomic sequencing became one of the first steps in this important process.
• Here, the purpose of genome sequencing was to understand the role of certain mutations in increasing the virus's infectivity.
• India also put in place a sequencing framework the Indian SARSCOV2 Genomics Consortia (INSACOG).
• This consortium of labs across the country was tasked with scanning coronavirus samples from patents and flagging the presence of variants known to have spiked transmission internationally.
• As of early December 2021, INSACOG had sequenced about 1, 00, 000 samples.

5. About Genome India Project

• India's 1.3 billion strong population consists of over 4, 600 population groups, many of which are endogamous.
• Thus, the Indian population harbours distinct variations, with disease-causing mutations often amplified within some of these groups.
• But despite being a large population with diverse ethnic groups, India lacks a comprehensive catalogue of genetic variations.
• Creating a database of Indian genomes allows researchers to learn about genetic variants unique to India's population groups and use that to customise drugs.
• About 20 institutions across India are involved in the Project.

For Prelims: Genome India Project, Covid-19, DNA,  For Mains:  1. What is the significance of genome sequencing? Discuss the reasons for the importance of the Genome India Project. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to agriculture in India, how can the technique of 'genome sequencing', often seen in the news, be used in the immediate future? (UPSC 2017)  1. Genome sequencing can be used to identify genetic markers for disease resistance and drought tolerance in various crop plants. 2. This technique helps in reducing the time required to develop new varieties of crop plants. 3. It can be used to decipher the host-pathogen relationships in crops. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only      B. 2 and 3 only      C. 1 and 3 only     D.  1, 2 and 3   Answer: D   2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)  1. Genetic changes can be introduced in the cells that produce eggs or sperms of a prospective parent. 2. A person’s genome can be edited before birth at the early embryonic stage. 3. Human-induced pluripotent stem cells can be injected into the embryo of a pig. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only      B. 2 and 3 only    C. 2 only     D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: D

 

Source: The Hindu

 

QUANTUM COMPUTING

1. Context 

For a long time, researchers have been looking for the sort of task that a quantum computer will be better at doing than a classical computer. Because if a quantum computer shows that it can be superior, it will achieve a milestone called quantum supremacy.. 

 

2. About quantum computing

• Quantum computing is a rapidly-emerging technology that harnesses the laws of quantum mechanics to solve problems too complex for classical computers. 
• IBM Quantum makes real quantum hardware a tool scientists only began to imagine three decades ago available to hundreds of thousands of developers.
• Engineers deliver ever-more-powerful superconducting quantum processors at regular intervals, alongside crucial advances in software and quantum-classical orchestration.
• This work drives toward the quantum computing speed and capacity necessary to change the world. 
• These machines are very different from the classical computers that have been around for more than half a century.

Image Source: IBM

3. Need for quantum computers

• For some problems, supercomputers aren’t that super. When scientists and engineers encounter difficult problems, they turn to supercomputers.
• These are very large classical computers, often with thousands of classical CPU and GPU cores. However, even supercomputers struggle to solve certain kinds of problems.
• If a supercomputer gets stumped, that's probably because the big classical machine was asked to solve a problem with a high degree of complexity. When classical computers fail, it's often due to complexity
• Complex problems are problems with lots of variables interacting in complicated ways.
• Modelling the behaviour of individual atoms in a molecule is a complex problem, because of all the different electrons interacting with one another.
• Sorting out the ideal routes for a few hundred tankers in a global shipping network is complex too.

4. Quantum computers work

• Quantum computers are elegant machines, smaller and requiring less energy than supercomputers.
• An IBM Quantum processor is a wafer not much bigger than the one found in a laptop.
• And a quantum hardware system is about the size of a car, made up mostly of cooling systems to keep the superconducting processor at its ultra-cold operational temperature.
• A classical processor uses bits to perform its operations. A quantum computer uses qubits (CUE-bits) to run multidimensional quantum algorithms.

4.1. Superfluids

• A desktop computer likely uses a fan to get cold enough to work.
• Quantum processors need to be very cold about a hundredth of a degree above absolute zero.
• To achieve this, we use super-cooled superfluids to create superconductors.

4.2. Superconductors

• At those ultra-low temperatures, certain materials in our processors exhibit another important quantum mechanical effect: electrons move through them without resistance. This makes them "superconductors." 
• When electrons pass through superconductors they match up, forming "Cooper pairs."
• These pairs can carry a charge across barriers, or insulators, through a process known as quantum tunnelling.
• Two superconductors placed on either side of an insulator form a Josephson junction.

4.3. Control

• Our quantum computers use Josephson junctions as superconducting qubits.
• By firing microwave photons at these qubits, we can control their behaviour and get them to hold, change, and read out individual units of quantum information.

4.4. Superposition

• A qubit itself isn't very useful. But it can perform an important trick: placing the quantum information it holds into a state of superposition, which represents a combination of all possible configurations of the qubit.
• Groups of qubits in superposition can create complex, multidimensional computational spaces. Complex problems can be represented in new ways in these spaces.

4.5. Entanglement

• Entanglement is a quantum mechanical effect that correlates the behaviour of two separate things.
• When two qubits are entangled, changes to one qubit directly impact the other.
• Quantum algorithms leverage those relationships to find solutions to complex problems.

5. Making quantum computers useful

• Right now, IBM Quantum leads the world in quantum computing hardware and software. It is a clear and detailed plan to scale quantum processors, overcomes the scaling problem, and build the hardware necessary for quantum advantage.
• Quantum advantage will not be achieved with hardware alone.
• IBM has also spent years advancing the software that will be necessary to do useful work using quantum computers.
• They developed the Qiskit quantum SDK. It is open-source, python-based, and by far the most widely-used quantum SDK in the world.
• The Qiskit Runtime is the most powerful quantum programming model in the world.
• Achieving quantum advantage will require new methods of suppressing errors, increasing speed, and orchestrating quantum and classical resources.

 

For Prelims: Quantum computing, supercomputers, Qiskit Runtime, IBM, National Mission on Quantum Technologies and Applications, superconductors,  For Mains:  1. What is Quantum computing? Discuss the need for Quantum Computers in emerging countries like India. (250 Words) 2. What are quantum computers and how are they different from conventional computers? Where does India stand in the race to build quantum computers that can realise their full potential? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. India's first Supercomputer is  (TSPSC AEE 2015) A. Aditya B. Param Yuva C.  Param D. Vikram-100 Answer: C   2. What is the full form of IBM? (SSC Steno  2017)  A. International Business Machine B. Indian Beta Machine C. Integral Business Machine D. Internal Beta Machine   Answer: A   3. Which one of the following is the context in which the term "qubit" is mentioned? (UPSC 2022)  A. Cloud Services B. Quantum Computing C. Visible Light Communication Technologies D. Wireless Communication Technologies   Answer: B   4. Quantum computing uses  (ACC 124 CGAT  2021) A. Qubit B. Bits C. Bytes D. Qubytes   Answer: A

 

Source: IBM

 

 

BIMSTEC

 

1. Context

Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) summit — the sixth — which brought the leaders of seven neighbouring countries to Bangkok at a time of global turbulence, was an opportunity to reignite the regional grouping after years of stasis

2. About BIMSTEC

• BIMSTEC is the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation, is a regional organization comprising seven member states in South Asia and Southeast Asia.
• The organization aims to foster cooperation and strengthen ties among its member countries in various sectors, including trade, economy, technology, tourism, and people-to-people contact.
• BIMSTEC was established on June 6, 1997, through the Bangkok Declaration.
• The member countries of BIMSTEC are Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
• BIMSTEC brings together countries from two contiguous regions- South Asia and Southeast Asia- connected by the Bay of Bengal.
• The organization represents a diverse and vibrant mix of cultures, languages, and economies.
• Around 22% of the world’s population lives in the seven countries around the Bay of
  Bengal, with a combined GDP close to $2.7 trillion.
• All seven countries have sustained average annual rates of growth between 3.4% and 7.5% from 2012 to 2016. A fourth of the world’s traded goods cross the bay every year.

3. Objectives of BIMSTEC:

• Enhancing Economic Cooperation: BIMSTEC aims to promote economic cooperation among member countries by facilitating trade, investment, and the development of infrastructure. It seeks to create a seamless flow of goods and services within the region, fostering economic growth and development.
• Strengthening Connectivity: Improving physical and digital connectivity is a crucial aspect of BIMSTEC's objectives. By enhancing transport and communication links, the organization seeks to facilitate easier movement of people and goods, encouraging regional integration.
• Promoting People-to-People Contact: BIMSTEC strives to promote cultural, educational, and tourism exchanges among member countries. This approach helps in fostering mutual understanding, friendship, and trust among the people of the region.
• Addressing Common Challenges: BIMSTEC provides a platform for member countries to address common challenges such as climate change, natural disasters, terrorism, and transnational crime. Cooperation in these areas is vital to ensuring the security and well-being of the region.
• Facilitating Technical Cooperation: The organization promotes technical cooperation in various sectors, such as agriculture, fisheries, technology, energy, and the environment. Sharing knowledge and expertise helps member countries address their developmental needs more effectively.

4. How BIMSTEC is important for India?

• It provides a new platform for India to engage with its neighbors with the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) becoming dysfunctional because of differences between India and Pakistan.
• BIMSTEC allows India to pursue three core policies:

• Neighborhood First – primacy to the country’s immediate periphery;
• Act East – connect India with Southeast Asia; and
• Economic development of India’s northeastern states – by linking them to the Bay of Bengal region via Bangladesh and Myanmar.

• Allow India to counter China's creeping influence in countries around the Bay of Bengal due to the spread of its One Belt and One Road initiative.

5. India's Renewed Push for BIMSTEC and Isolating Pakistan

• Trigger Event: Terror attack in Uri
• India held an outreach summit with BIMSTEC leaders alongside the BRICS summit in Goa.
• Some BIMSTEC countries backed India's call for boycotting the SAARC summit in Islamabad (November 2016).
• India declared victory in isolating Pakistan after the SAARC summit was postponed.
• India believed SAARC's potential was under-utilized due to Pakistan's lack of response and obstructionist approach.
• At the 2014 SAARC summit in Kathmandu, Modi emphasized realizing opportunities through SAARC or outside it, among all or some member countries.

6. Challenges faced by BIMSTEC

• Neglect by member states: It seems that India has used BIMSTEC only when it fails to work through SAARC in the regional setting and other major members like Thailand and Myanmar are focused more towards ASEAN than BIMSTEC.
• Inconsistent Meetings: BIMSTEC planned to hold summits every two years, and ministerial meetings every year, but only four summits have taken place in 20 years up to 2018.
• Broad Focus Areas: The focus of BIMSTEC is very wide, including 14 areas of cooperation like connectivity, public health, agriculture, etc. It is suggested that BIMSTEC should remain committed to small focus areas and cooperate in them efficiently.
• No FTA: BIMSTEC FTA was negotiated in 2004, talks on it are yet to be concluded.
• Bilateral Issues between Member Nations: Bangladesh is facing one of the worst refugee crisis of Rohingyas from Myanmar who are fleeing prosecution in the state of Rakhine in Myanmar. There is a border conflict between Myanmar and Thailand.
• BCIM: The formation of another sub-regional initiative, the Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar (BCIM) Forum, with the proactive membership of China, has created more doubts about the exclusive potential of BIMSTEC.

For Prelims: BIMSTEC, Free Trade Agreement (FTA), Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar (BCIM) Forum, ASEAN, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), Act East Policy, Neighbourhood First Policy, and Uri Attack. For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance and challenges of the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) in promoting regional cooperation and integration among its member countries. (250 words)

 

Previous year Questions 1. With reference to the BIMSTEC, which of the following statements is/are true? (UPPSC 2022) 1. P. M. Narendra Modi addressed the 5th BIMSTEC Summit on 30th March 2022. 2. 5th Summit of BIMSTEC had been chaired by India. Select the correct answer from the code given below: A. Neither 1 nor 2 B. Both 1 and 2 C. Only 2 D. Only 1 Answer: D   2. Which of the following statement/s is/are true about the three-day international Seminar on 'Climate Smart Farming System' for BIMSTEC countries held during December 11-13, 2019? (UPPSC 2020) 1. It was held at Katmandu, Nepal. 2. It was aimed to have experience sharing for more resilience to climate change through an ecological approach to enable the improvement of tropical small-holding farming systems. Select the correct answer from the codes given below: A. Only 1 B. Only 2 C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: B

Source: The Indian Express

 

MIRRORS

 

 

1. Context

 

Dressing up is probably one of the most annoying things. You stand in front of a mirror and try to find the right combination of clothes of various colours hoping you look more tolerable to people. This is probably one trait that distinguishes us from other animals: we spend a few good minutes every morning staring at a mirror.

 

2. What is a mirror?

 

Most mirrors have a glass-like feel—they're typically heavy and fragile. However, despite this similarity, the experience of looking into a mirror versus a regular glass surface, like a window, is quite different.

During daylight, window glass is transparent, allowing you to view the world outside. But at night, if your room is brightly lit and you look at the same window, you'll notice your own reflection instead. A mirror, in contrast, consistently shows your reflection whether it's day or night, as long as there's sufficient light.

To grasp why mirrors and window glass behave so differently, it's important to explore the roles of metals and insulators

 

3. Metals and Insulators

 

• Metals are typically shiny materials—like steel utensils, aluminum pressure cookers, or the coins you carry. They're usually strong, tough to break, and have a silvery appearance.
• Metals also respond quickly to temperature changes and are good conductors of electricity. That’s why it’s dangerous to touch a live electrical socket with something like a metal spoon.
• In contrast, insulators—such as glass, wood, and plastic—do not conduct electricity well and generally lack that metallic shine.
• Electricity flows through the movement of electrons. Atoms contain both positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons. In metals, electrons are free to move—they behave like energetic kids, roaming between atoms, creating what’s often called an "electron sea."
• In insulators, however, electrons stay close to their respective atoms and don’t move around freely. So when a battery is connected, electrons can travel easily through metals but not through insulators.
• Interestingly, this same difference in how electrons behave with electricity also affects how they respond to light

 

4. Interaction of light and electrons

 

• Light is a type of electromagnetic wave. A wave, in general, is a repeating disturbance that travels from one location to another. For example, dropping a stone in water creates ripples, while speaking generates sound waves in the air.
• When light reaches us, it comes in the form of electromagnetic waves—regular patterns of changing electric and magnetic fields. Electric fields can move electrons, as seen in electronic devices like watches, while magnetic fields are what hold magnets to your fridge. When these fields begin to change rhythmically over time, they produce electromagnetic waves—what we perceive as light.
• Electrons respond in interesting ways when exposed to light. Similar to how we move rhythmically when pushed on a swing, electrons also begin to oscillate when struck by light, almost like they’re dancing.
• However, this “dance” varies between materials. In metals, where electrons are free to move around in a shared "electron sea," they respond collectively—like a choreographed group performance. In contrast, electrons in insulators remain close to their own atoms, moving individually in place.
• This difference in electron behavior determines how a material interacts with light. In metals, the synchronized movement of electrons blocks light, reflecting it back instead of letting it pass through.
• That’s why light bounces off metallic surfaces. In insulators, electrons only wiggle slightly within their atoms, allowing most of the light to pass through.
• This is why transparent insulators like glass allow light to pass, while metals typically do not.
• It also explains why you can see your reflection clearly in a steel spoon—light from your face bounces straight back into your eyes. But during the day, when you look at a window, most of the light from your face passes through the glass, making your reflection faint.
• At night, with less light outside and more indoors, a small amount reflects back from the glass, letting you see yourself faintly

 

5. How does a mirror work?

 

• So how is it that a mirror, which feels like ordinary glass—an insulator—can reflect light as effectively as a metal surface like steel? The secret lies in its structure. A mirror isn’t just glass; it has a hidden component.
• While the front surface is glass, allowing light to pass through, a thin metallic layer is applied to the back. It’s this metal layer that reflects light, thanks to the dynamic movement of electrons within it.
• This clever combination is what enables you to see your reflection clearly when you look into a mirror. In essence, a mirror is a hybrid—it brings together the properties of both materials. The glass with its tightly held electrons, and the metal with its freely moving ones, work together to form the mirrors you find in wardrobes or bathrooms.
• Now, consider the idea of encasing a block of glass with silver on all sides. It would appear metallic from the outside, but wouldn't conduct electricity internally like a true metal. This raises an interesting question: can a single material behave like a metal on the surface but act as an insulator inside?
• Surprisingly, such materials do exist. Discovered in the latter part of the 20th century, they are known as topological materials. Their unique properties earned their discoverers the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2016. More recently, Microsoft unveiled a quantum computing chip made from these very materials.
• To truly understand how and why these materials work the way they do, one must dive into the world of quantum mechanics—an incredibly elegant and fascinating branch of physics. In recognition of its impact, the United Nations has designated 2025 as the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology, marking a century since the field's foundational discoveries

 

6. Way Forward

 

Although you might now have a basic understanding of how mirrors work, to truly grasp why some electrons move freely while others stay close to their atoms—or how they respond when light hits them—you’ll need to explore quantum mechanics.

Until then, the next time you gaze into a mirror, don’t just focus on your reflection. Take a moment to admire the invisible motion of electrons—those bound within the glass and those freely moving in the metallic layer behind it—that work together to bounce your image back to you

 

For Prelims: Electrons, Neutrons, Total internal reflection   For Mains: GS III - Science & technology

 

Source: The Hindu

 

BUDDHIST SITES 

 

 

1. Context

 

In the past two months, large-scale demonstrations have erupted across India, demanding that the control over the Mahabodhi temple in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, be handed over to Buddhists. These protests are the latest chapter in a decades-old dispute over who controls one of the holiest sites in Buddhism. Buddhists want the repeal of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act, 1949 (BGTA), under which the temple is currently governed.

 

2. Buddhism

 

• Buddhism originated in India around the 5th to 6th centuries BCE, during a transformative era often referred to by scholars as the "Second Urbanisation" of the Indian subcontinent. This was a period marked by significant social and cultural shifts in the Gangetic plains. Buddhism, alongside other non-Vedic traditions like Jainism, arose as a reaction to the rigid and ritual-heavy practices associated with Vedic Hinduism.

• India hosts a wide array of Buddhist heritage sites that draw both pilgrims and tourists from across the globe. These spiritually significant locations not only highlight the rich history and core teachings of Buddhism but also offer peaceful settings ideal for introspection and meditation. Below are some notable Buddhist sites connected to the life of Lord Buddha

 

3. Buddhist Sites

 

Lumbini (Nepal)

• Located in Nepal’s Rupandehi district, near Gorakhpur across the Indian border, Lumbini lies in the Terai plains and is traditionally recognized as the birthplace of Lord Buddha around 623 BCE.

• Emperor Ashoka of ancient India erected a commemorative pillar at this site, which is now being developed into a prominent center for Buddhist pilgrimage. The archaeological remains related to Buddha's birth form the heart of the site.

• After being lost to history for centuries, Lumbini was rediscovered in 1896, leading to excavations. It was later designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997.

Mahabodhi Temple (Bodh Gaya, Bihar)

• Situated in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, the Mahabodhi Temple marks the sacred spot where Prince Siddhartha achieved enlightenment in 589 BCE, becoming the Buddha—"the Enlightened One."

• Emperor Ashoka built a modest shrine here in the 3rd century BCE, with the remaining Vajrasana or Diamond Throne lying beneath the Bodhi tree. Further additions were made during the Shunga period (2nd–1st century BCE).

• The Chinese pilgrim Faxian, who visited in the 5th century CE, recorded the presence of three monasteries in the area. The present-day pyramidal temple structure dates back to the Gupta period in the 6th century CE.

• Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the temple complex includes a grand spire and a descendant of the original Bodhi tree. Pilgrims from across the globe come here to meditate and honor the Buddha

Kushinagar (Uttar Pradesh)

• Kushinagar is revered as the place where the Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana (final liberation) around 483 BCE. Important landmarks here include the Mahaparinirvana Temple, with a reclining Buddha statue, and the Ramabhar Stupa, considered to be his cremation site.

• The site corresponds with ancient Kushinara, capital of the Malla republic, one of the 16 Mahajanapadas during the 6th–4th centuries BCE. It was later incorporated into several prominent dynasties such as the Mauryas, Shungas, Kushanas, Guptas, Harshavardhana’s empire, and the Palas.

• The earliest archaeological excavations in the area were led by Alexander Cunningham and A.C.L. Carlleyle in 1876, which revealed the main stupa and a six-meter-long reclining Buddha statue. Kushinagar is among the few places where the Buddha is represented in a reclining posture

 

4. Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree & Buddhist Circuit

 

• The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree is recognized as the world's oldest known tree that has been purposefully planted and nurtured. It is believed to have originated from a sapling taken by an Indian princess to Sri Lanka. Let's explore what makes this sacred tree significant, along with some prominent Buddhist sites.

• This revered tree is thought to have sprouted from a cutting of the original Bodhi tree in Bodhgaya (in modern-day Bihar), beneath which Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment. The sapling was brought to Sri Lanka by Sanghamitta (or Sanghamitra), a Buddhist nun and daughter of Emperor Ashoka. Her journey to Sri Lanka, carrying the sacred branch, is commemorated annually through the Uduvapa Poya festival, celebrated on the December full moon.

• The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, together with other ancient Buddhist monuments located in Anuradhapura, forms an important pilgrimage destination for Buddhists. Today, Anuradhapura is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its historical and spiritual importance

 

5. Buddhist Circuit

 

• In 2016, the Ministry of Tourism introduced the Buddhist Circuit as India’s first transnational tourism initiative, encompassing important sites not only within India but also in Nepal and Sri Lanka. The objective of this circuit is to provide pilgrims and travelers with an immersive experience of the life and teachings of Lord Buddha by following his journey across these sacred locations.

• This spiritual trail covers key destinations associated with various stages of Buddha’s life, including his birth, enlightenment, teachings, and Parinirvana. Major Indian sites on the circuit include Bodh Gaya, Vaishali, Rajgir, and Kushinagar in Bihar, as well as Sarnath and Shravasti in Uttar Pradesh. The international segment features Kapilavastu and Lumbini in Nepal.

• Siddhartha Gautama, who later became known as the Buddha, was born around 563 BCE in Lumbini and spent his early years in Kapilavastu, the capital of the Shakya clan. At the age of 29, he renounced worldly life and eventually attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya. His first sermon was delivered at Sarnath, near Varanasi. He spent significant periods preaching in the Rajgir region, where King Bimbisara of Magadha provided him with a forest monastery. Shravasti became his primary residence during his later years as a teacher, and he delivered his final sermon in Vaishali before attaining Mahaparinirvana in Kushinagar

 

6. Way Forward

 

Buddhism, which arose in India during a transformative period of social and spiritual awakening, continues to influence millions across the world through its teachings of peace, compassion, and mindfulness. The life of Lord Buddha—from his birth in Lumbini to his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, his sermons in Sarnath and Rajgir, and his Mahaparinirvana in Kushinagar—forms a sacred journey reflected in the Buddhist Circuit. This initiative not only preserves and promotes the rich heritage of Buddhist philosophy but also strengthens cultural ties between India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. Sacred sites like the Mahabodhi Temple, Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, and Anuradhapura remain living symbols of faith and devotion, drawing pilgrims and seekers globally. Through ongoing preservation and responsible tourism, these timeless centers of learning and reflection continue to inspire humanity toward a path of inner peace and enlightenment

 

 

For Prelims: Dalai Lama, Janang tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, reincarnation, Khalkha Jetsun Dhampa,  For Mains:  1. What is Tibetan Buddhism? Discuss the Hierarchy and Reincarnation in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition. (250 Words)

Previous Year Questions

1. With reference to the history of philosophical thought in India, consider the following statements regarding Sankhya school: (UPSC 2013) 1. Sankhya does not accept the theory of rebirth or transmigration of the soul. 2. Sankhya holds that it is self-knowledge that leads to liberation and not any exterior influence or agent. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only    B. 2 only        C. Both 1 and 2     D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: 2   2. Which one of the following describes best the concept of Nirvana in Buddhism? A. The extinction of the flame of desire B. The complete annihilation of self C. A state of bliss and rest D. A mental stage beyond all comprehension   Answer: A   3. With reference to Indian history, who among the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the world? (UPSC 2018) A. Avalokiteshvara B. Lokesvara C. Maitreya D. Padmapani Answer: C 4. With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016) The concept of Bodhisattva is central to the Hinayana sect of Buddhism. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to it. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   5. Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with the hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha Mudra’. It symbolizes (2012) (a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his meditation (b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of Mara (c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve into the Earth, and thus this life is transitory (d) Both the statements (a) and (b) are correct in this context Answer: B

Source: Indianexpress