MIDDLE-INCOME TRAP
The Middle Income Trap refers to a situation where a country's economy grows rapidly enough to transition from low-income to middle-income status but then struggles to advance further to high-income levels. The country gets "trapped" because it is unable to sustain the factors that drove its earlier growth and fails to develop new competitive advantages that high-income countries typically possess.
Here are key aspects of the Middle Income Trap:
- Many developing nations experience initial growth by relying on low-cost labor, exporting goods, and foreign direct investment (FDI). This leads to a rise in income, but these drivers eventually lose their effectiveness as wages increase and labor becomes more expensive
- As wages rise, the country can no longer compete with lower-income countries in labor-intensive industries. At the same time, it lacks the innovation, technological development, and productivity gains needed to compete with high-income countries
- Without significant improvements in education, infrastructure, innovation, and governance, the economy's productivity growth stagnates.
- Middle-income countries often rely heavily on technology imports rather than developing their own, which limits their capacity to innovate and compete globally
- To avoid or escape the middle-income trap, a country typically needs to shift towards higher value-added industries, improve governance, invest in education and infrastructure, and foster innovation and entrepreneurship
- Brazil and South Africa are often cited as examples of countries that have struggled to break through the middle-income barrier. Both have achieved middle-income status but face challenges in diversifying their economies and boosting productivity
- 3i Strategy: Emphasize investment, integration of global technologies, and fostering innovation. Nations that successfully reached high-income status effectively implemented these principles.
- Government Intervention: In South Korea, the government played a crucial role by guiding private enterprises and assisting successful firms with technological access. Inefficient companies were allowed to collapse, enhancing overall productivity.
- Export-Led Growth: South Korea's economic expansion was largely driven by manufacturing exports. While this approach is less viable today due to slowing global trade growth, it remains a valuable lesson.
- Targeted Industry Support: Chile's government provided specific assistance to its natural resource sectors, such as the salmon industry, to stimulate economic development
- Wage stagnation: Despite India's real GDP growth rate being projected at 7%, wages have not increased at the same rate. Regular workers saw nominal wage growth of approximately 5%, while casual workers experienced a 7% increase. However, with inflation hovering around 5%, real wage growth has been minimal, reducing consumption demand.
- Manufacturing stagnation: The manufacturing sector has failed to grow significantly, and following the pandemic, many workers have moved back to agriculture and other low-productivity sectors, undoing progress in structural transformation.
- Influence of billionaires: India’s wealthy business elites are perceived as having close ties with the government, yet their investment levels remain low, contributing to slower economic growth.
- Challenges in global exports: Export opportunities are constrained due to rising global protectionism and declining demand in developed nations, affecting India's prospects for export-driven growth.
- Premature deindustrialization: Manufacturing has diminished as a primary driver of growth, and it remains uncertain whether the service sector can effectively take its place
- Implement the "3i" strategy: India should prioritize investment, the integration of global technologies, and innovation. These elements were crucial to South Korea's success, where businesses used technological advancements and innovation to fuel economic growth.
- Adapt to global economic changes: While South Korea’s model of manufacturing exports drove its growth, it may not be as feasible for India today, given the slowdown in global export growth. India must acknowledge these shifts and explore new strategies for growth, while addressing the issues in its manufacturing sector.
- Preserve democratic values: Unlike the authoritarian regimes in South Korea and Chile, which curtailed labor movements, India must remain committed to its democratic values. While the government should actively support economic growth, it must also ensure fairness, protect labor rights, and uphold democratic principles
- Economic growth in a country is often driven by factors such as export competitiveness (e.g., low wages) or abundant natural resources. As the economy grows, per capita income also rises.
- However, over time, the initial competitive advantages that fueled growth can diminish, such as when wages increase. If the economy does not undergo structural transformations, growth may slow down, stall, or even reverse, leading to stagnant income levels.
- Population stabilization plays a role as well—if the population continues to grow, the per capita income may increase too slowly to have a meaningful impact on living standards.
- Several countries in Southeast Asia (like Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia), Africa (such as South Africa), and Latin America (e.g., Brazil) are currently experiencing this phenomenon, which hinders their progress from middle-income to high-income status.
- From 1960 to 2010, only 15 out of 101 middle-income economies successfully transitioned to high-income status, including Japan, Singapore, and South Korea.
For Prelims: Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR), Employment Rate (ER), Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE), and Labour Force.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) as a critical labor market indicator in the context of economic development and policy formulation. (250 words).
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Previous year Question1. In India, which one of the following compiles information on industrial disputes, closures, retrenchments, and lay-offs in factories employing workers? (UPSC 2022)
A. Central Statistics Office
B. Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade
C. Labour Bureau
D. National Technical Manpower Information System
Answer: C
2. Which of the following brings out the 'Consumer Price Index Number for Industrial Workers'? (UPSC 2015)
A. The Reserve Bank of India
B. The Department of Economic Affairs
C. The Labour Bureau
D. The Department of Personnel and Training
Answer: C
3. International Labour Organization's Conventions 138 and 182 are related to (UPSC 2018)
A. Child labour
B. Adaptation of agricultural practices to global climate change
C. Regulation of food prices and food
D. Security
Answer: A
4. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)
1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India.
2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector.
3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 2 only
B. 1 and 2 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
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STAMPEDE
A stampede is a sudden rush or flight of a group of animals or people, usually caused by panic or fear. In the context of animals, it often refers to a herd of large mammals like cattle, horses, or elephants running together in the same direction. For humans, it describes a chaotic situation where a crowd moves rapidly and uncontrollably, often resulting in injuries or fatalities due to trampling or crushing.
Stampedes can be triggered by various factors, such as:
- Sudden loud noises
- Perceived threats
- Natural disasters
- Overcrowding in confined spaces
- Mass panic
Stampedes are particularly dangerous in crowded events or enclosed spaces, as people may be unable to escape the rushing crowd.
3. What causes stampedes?
Stampedes can be caused by several factors:
- Fear or panic: A perceived threat, real or imagined, can trigger a fight-or-flight response in a crowd.
- Overcrowding: When too many people are in a confined space, even small movements can create a domino effect.
- Poor crowd management: Inadequate planning or control of large gatherings can lead to chaotic situations.
- Sudden loud noises: Unexpected sounds like explosions or gunshots can startle a crowd into fleeing.
- Physical pressure: In dense crowds, people at the back pushing forward can create dangerous force on those in front.
- Limited exits: When escape routes are few or narrow, people may rush to leave, creating bottlenecks.
- Misinformation or rumors: False alarms or spreading of incorrect information can cause panic.
- Environmental factors: Extreme weather, fire, or structural collapses can prompt rapid evacuation attempts.
- Mob mentality: People tend to follow the actions of others in a crowd, amplifying panic.
- Cultural or religious events: Large gatherings for festivals or pilgrimages can sometimes lead to stampedes if not managed properly
India has unfortunately experienced several major stampedes. Here are some notable cases:
- Kumbh Mela stampede (2013): At least 36 people died at the Allahabad railway station during the Kumbh Mela festival.
- Ratangarh temple stampede (2013): Over 100 people died near a temple in Madhya Pradesh when rumors of a bridge collapse sparked panic.
- Sabarimala temple stampede (2011): 106 pilgrims died in Kerala during the Makara Jyothi festival.
- Pratapgarh temple stampede (2010): About 63 people died at a temple in Uttar Pradesh during a free food distribution event.
- Naina Devi temple stampede (2008): At least 162 people died in Himachal Pradesh when heavy rains caused panic among pilgrims.
- Mandher Devi temple stampede (2005): 291 people died in Maharashtra during a religious festival.
- Nashik Kumbh Mela stampede (2003): 39 people died during the holy bath ritual in Maharashtra.
- Nagpur stampede (1994): 114 people died on a narrow bridge during a religious procession
For Prelims: Current events of national importance
For Mains: GS-II, GS-III: Government policies and interventions, Disaster Management
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UNIFORM CIVIL CODE (UCC)
- Underlining that the Uniform Civil Code is “neither necessary nor desirable at this stage”, the 21st Law Commission of India, in 2018, argued for reform of family laws of every religion through amendments and codification of certain aspects so as to make them gender-just
- In its ‘Consultation Paper on Family Law Reforms’, the Law Commission took a stand in favour of “equality ‘within communities’ between men and women” (personal law reform), “rather than ‘equality between’ communities” (UCC)
- According to the 22nd Law Commission Cultural diversity cannot be compromised to the extent that our urge for uniformity itself becomes a reason for threat to the territorial integrity of the nation
- women must be guaranteed their freedom of faith without any compromise on their right to equality
- A UCC would provide for one law for the entire country, applicable to all religious communities, in their personal matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption etc
- Currently, Indian personal law is fairly complex, with each religion adhering to its own specific laws
- Separate laws govern Hindus including Sikhs, Jains and Buddhist, Muslims, Christians, and followers of other religions
- Moreover, there is diversity even within communities. All Hindus of the country are not governed by one law, nor are all Muslims or all Christians
- For instance, in the Northeast, there are more than 200 tribes with their own varied customary laws
- The Constitution itself protects local customs in Nagaland. Similar protections are enjoyed by Meghalaya and Mizoram. Even reformed Hindu law, in spite of codification, protects customary practices
- The exception to this rule is the state of Goa, where all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces, and adoption
- Article 44 of the Constitution lays down that the state shall endeavour to secure a UCC for citizens throughout the territory of India
- Article 44 is among the Directive Principles of State Policy. Directive Principles are not enforceable by court, but are supposed to inform and guide governance
- However, in some senses, Article 44 is unique in this manner. While Article 44 uses the words “state shall endeavour”, other Articles in the ‘Directive Principles’ chapter use words such as “in particular strive”; “shall in particular direct its policy”; “shall be obligation of the state
- The phrase “by suitable legislation” is absent in Article 44. All this implies that the duty of the state is greater in other directive principles than in Article 44
For Prelims: Unifrom Civil Code (UCC), DPSP, Fundamental rights, Law Commission
For Mains: 1. What is the Uniform Civil Code? What are the challenges in implementing a Uniform Civil Code in a diverse country like India?
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Previous Year Questions
Q1. Consider the following provisions under the Directive Principles of State Policy as enshrined in the Constitution of India: (2012)
Which of the above are the Gandhian Principles that are reflected in the Directive Principles of State Policy? (a) 1, 2 and 4 only Answer (b) 2. A legislation that confers on the executive or administrative authority an unguided and uncontrolled discretionary power in the matter of the application of law violates which one of the following Articles of the Constitution of India? Answer (a) Mains 1.Discuss the possible factors that inhibit India from enacting for its citizens a uniform civil code as provided for in the Directive Principles of State Policy. (2015) |
WAQF ACT
- In Islamic law, a waqf refers to property dedicated to God for religious or charitable purposes. This can include any type of property, either movable or immovable, that is set aside for the benefit of the public, serving as an act of piety that enables Muslims to continue their charitable contributions even after death.
- A waqf can be created through a formal document, or property may be recognized as waqf if it has been consistently used for religious or charitable purposes over time. The income generated from such properties is usually directed towards the upkeep of mosques, funding educational institutions, or aiding the needy.
- Once a property is designated as waqf, it cannot be inherited, sold, or given away. Non-Muslims are also permitted to establish a waqf, provided the purpose aligns with Islamic values.
- In India, waqfs are governed by the 1995 Act. The identification and delineation of waqf properties are carried out by a survey conducted by the State government.
- A survey commissioner, appointed under this Act, identifies these properties through local inquiries, witness statements, and examination of public records. Once identified, the properties are listed in the State’s official gazette, and a record is maintained by the State Waqf Board.
- Each waqf is managed by a mutawalli (caretaker) responsible for its administration. While waqfs are similar to trusts under the Indian Trusts Act of 1882, unlike trusts, waqfs cannot be dissolved by a Board
- The 1995 Act creates Waqf Boards in each State, responsible for overseeing the management of waqf properties within their respective areas. These Boards are legally recognized entities, enabling them to initiate or face legal action.
- Each State Waqf Board is led by a chairperson and includes one or two representatives from the State government, Muslim legislators, acknowledged Islamic scholars, and mutawallis (caretakers) of the waqfs.
- The Act also requires the appointment of a full-time Chief Executive Officer for each Board, who must be a practicing Muslim and hold a rank equivalent to at least a Deputy Secretary in the State government.
- The Waqf Board is empowered to manage waqf properties and undertake actions to reclaim lost assets. It also has the authority to approve the transfer of immovable waqf properties through sale, gift, mortgage, exchange, or lease, but such transactions require the consent of at least two-thirds of the Board members.
- The 2013 amendments to the 1995 Act further enhanced the Board's powers, making it almost impossible to sell waqf properties, as neither the mutawalli nor the Board is permitted to sell such property.
- In addition to the State Waqf Boards, the legislation also establishes the Central Waqf Council, a national advisory body under the Ministry of Minority Affairs.
- This Council ensures consistent administration of waqf properties across the country and is chaired by the Union Minister of Minority Affairs.
- The Council also advises the Union government on waqf-related matters, including policy formulation, implementation of waqf laws, and the resolution of inter-state disputes
- The definition of ‘waqf’ has been revised under the new Bill. Now, only lawful property owners who have practiced Islam for at least five years are permitted to establish waqf properties through formal deeds.
- This change eliminates the concept of ‘waqf by use,’ which allowed a property to be considered waqf based on its usage, even if the original deed was contested. Historically, waqf properties were often designated orally until formal documentation became more common.
- To prevent fraudulent claims of waqf status, the Bill stipulates that any government property identified or declared as waqf, either before or after the enactment of this Act, will not be recognized as waqf property. The law also allows widows, divorced women, and orphans to benefit from waqf proceeds.
- The responsibility for surveying waqf properties, previously handled by survey commissioners under the 1995 Act, will now be transferred to district collectors or officers of equivalent rank under the new Bill.
- To enhance the accuracy of waqf property records, the Bill proposes the establishment of a centralized registration system. All information regarding waqf properties must be uploaded to this portal within six months of the law’s enactment, and any new waqf property registrations must be submitted through this portal to the Waqf Boards.
- Additionally, the Bill removes section 40, which previously allowed waqf tribunals to determine whether a property qualifies as waqf. Instead, the district collector is now designated as the final authority on such matters.
- Once a decision is made, the collector must update the revenue records and report to the State government. Importantly, the Bill states that the disputed property cannot be treated as waqf property until the collector submits a final report, meaning the Waqf Board cannot take control of the land until the government resolves the issue.
- One of the most debated provisions in the Bill is the proposal to include non-Muslims in key waqf institutions, such as the Central Waqf Council, State Waqf Boards, and waqf tribunals.
- The Bill authorizes the Centre to appoint three Members of Parliament (two from the Lok Sabha and one from the Rajya Sabha) to the Central Waqf Council without requiring them to be Muslims. Previously, under the 1995 Act, these MPs had to be from the Muslim community.
- The new Bill also mandates that State Waqf Boards must include two non-Muslims and two women as members. The composition of waqf tribunals has been altered from a three-member body to a two-member body, consisting of a district judge and an officer of joint secretary rank to the State government.
- The proposed law requires tribunals to resolve disputes within six months, with a possible six-month extension.
- Furthermore, the Bill gives the Centre the authority to “direct the audit of any waqf at any time by an auditor appointed by the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India, or by any officer designated by the Central Government for that purpose.”
- The Waqf Boards are required to audit their accounts annually, selecting auditors from a panel formed by the State governments. Mutawallis who fail to maintain proper accounts will face penalties.
- The proposed law also allows courts to intervene in waqf disputes by removing the finality of waqf tribunal decisions, enabling aggrieved parties to appeal directly to the relevant High Court. This measure aims to increase judicial oversight and reduce instances of arbitrary power exercised by Waqf Boards or tribunals
For Prelims: Waqf board, Amendment process in Parliament
For Mains: GS II - Indian Governance
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FREE TRADE AGREEMENT
1. Context
2. About the Free Trade Agreement
- A Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is an agreement between two or more countries to reduce or eliminate barriers to trade, such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies.
- FTAs can also include provisions on other issues, such as investment, intellectual property, and labour standards.
- The goal of an FTA is to promote trade and economic growth between the signatory countries.
- By reducing or eliminating trade barriers, FTAs can make it easier for businesses to export their goods and services to other countries, which can lead to increased production, employment, and innovation.
3. Types of Free Trade Agreement
- Bilateral Free Trade Agreement (BFTA) involves two countries, aiming to promote trade and eliminate tariffs on goods and services between them. It establishes a direct trade relationship, allowing for a more focused and tailored agreement between the two nations.
- Multilateral Free Trade Agreement (MFTA) Involving three or more countries, an MFTA seeks to create a comprehensive trade bloc, promoting economic integration on a larger scale. It requires coordination among multiple parties, addressing diverse economic interests and fostering a broader regional economic landscape.
- Regional Free Trade Agreement (RFTA) involves countries within a specific geographic region, aiming to enhance economic cooperation and integration within that particular area. It focuses on addressing regional economic challenges and fostering collaboration among neighbouring nations.
- Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) involves a reciprocal reduction of tariffs and trade barriers between participating countries, granting preferential treatment to each other's goods and services. It allows countries to enjoy trading advantages with specific partners while maintaining autonomy in their trade policies with non-participating nations.
- Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) is a broad and advanced form of FTA that goes beyond traditional trade barriers, encompassing various economic aspects such as investment, intellectual property, and services. It aims for a more comprehensive economic partnership, encouraging deeper integration and collaboration between participating countries.
- Customs Union While not strictly an FTA, a Customs Union involves the elimination of tariffs among member countries and the establishment of a common external tariff against non-member nations. It goes beyond standard FTAs by harmonizing external trade policies, creating a unified approach to trade with the rest of the world.
- Free Trade Area (FTA) with Trade in Goods (TIG) and Trade in Services (TIS): Some FTAs specifically emphasize either trade in goods or trade in services, tailoring the agreement to the specific economic strengths and priorities of the participating countries. This approach allows nations to focus on areas where they have a comparative advantage, fostering specialization and efficiency.
4. India's Free Trade Agreements
India is a member of several free trade agreements (FTAs) and is currently negotiating others. India's FTAs have helped to reduce trade barriers and promote trade and economic growth. They have also helped to attract foreign investment and create jobs.
- The South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) was signed in 1995 by the seven countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). SAFTA aims to reduce or eliminate tariffs on trade between the member countries.
- The India-Bangladesh FTA was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Sri Lanka FTA was signed in 1999 and came into force in 2000. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2002 and came into force in 2010. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement(CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2023. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-UAE Comprehensive Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Malaysia Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) was signed in 2010 and aims to enhance economic ties by addressing trade in goods and services, as well as investment and other areas of economic cooperation.
- The India-Thailand Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2003 and focuses on reducing tariffs and promoting trade in goods and services between India and Thailand.
- The India-Singapore Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) has been operational since 2005, this agreement covers trade in goods and services, as well as investment and intellectual property.
- The India-Nepal Trade Treaty While not a comprehensive FTA, India and Nepal have a trade treaty that facilitates the exchange of goods between the two countries.
- The India-Chile Preferential Trade Agreement was signed in 2006 and aims to enhance economic cooperation and reduce tariffs on certain products traded between India and Chile.
5. India - UK Free Trade Agreement
5.1. Background
- Both countries have agreed to avoid sensitive issues in the negotiations.
- The interim (early harvest agreement) aims to achieve up to 65 per cent coverage for goods and up to 40 per cent coverage for services.
- By the time the final agreement is inked, the coverage for goods is expected to go up to "90 plus a percentage" of goods.
- India is also negotiating a similar early harvest agreement with Australia, which is supposed to set the stage for a long-pending Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement that both countries have been pursuing for nearly a decade.
- While the commencement of negotiations does mark a step forward in the otherwise rigid stance adopted and when it comes to trade liberalisation, experts point to impediments and the potential for legal challenges going ahead.
5.2. GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs)
- The exception to the rule is full-scale FTAs, subject to some conditions.
- One rider, incorporated in Article XXIV.8 (b) of GATT, stipulates that a deal should aim to eliminate customs duties and other trade barriers on "Substantially all the trade" between the WTO member countries that are signatories to an FTA.
- For this Agreement, a free-trade area shall be understood to mean a group of two or more customs territories in which the duties and other restrictive regulations of commerce are eliminated on substantially all the trade between the constituent territories in products originating in such territories.
- It is often beneficial to negotiate the entire deal together, as an early harvest deal may reduce the incentive for one side to work towards a full FTA.
- These agreements are not just about goods and services but also issues like investment.
- If you are trying to weigh the costs and benefits, it is always better to have the larger picture in front of you.
- In the case of the early harvest agreement inked with Thailand, automobile industry associations had complained that relaxations extended to Bangkok in the early harvest had reduced the incentive for Thailand to work towards a full FTA.
- Early harvest agreements may serve the function of keeping trading partners interested as they promise some benefits without long delays, as India becomes known for long-drawn negotiations for FTAs.
- Government emphasis on interim agreements may be tactical so that a deal may be achieved with minimum commitments and would allow for contentious issues to be resolved later.
For Prelims: Free Trade Agreement, India-U.K, Bilateral Free Trade Agreement, G-20 Summit, Agenda 2030, Covid-19 Pandemic, SAARC, General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, Multilateral Free Trade Agreement, Regional Free Trade Agreement, Preferential Trade Agreement, Customs Union,
For Mains:
1. Evaluate the potential impact of the India-UK FTA on the Indian economy, considering both positive and negative aspects (250 Words)
2. Critically evaluate the significance of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) in promoting trade and economic growth, considering their potential benefits and drawbacks. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following countries:
1. Australia
2. Canada
3. China
4. India
5. Japan
6. USA
Which of the above are among the free-trade partners' of ASEAN? (UPSC 2018)
A. 1, 2, 4 and 5 B. 3, 4, 5 and 6 C. 1, 3, 4 and 5 D. 2, 3, 4 and 6
Answer: C
2. Increase in absolute and per capita real GNP do not connote a higher level of economic development, if (UPSC 2018) (a) Industrial output fails to keep pace with agricultural output. Answer: C 3. The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following: (2010)
Which of the above are the objectives of this Act? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A 4. A “closed economy” is an economy in which (UPSC 2011) (a) the money supply is fully controlled Answer: D 5. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club. 2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: C
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FUSION ENERGY
1. Context
2. Key takeaways
- The announcement was made shortly after the Financial Times reported scientists at the California-based Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) successfully generated a "Net energy gain" using nuclear fusion in a lab for the first time.
- For decades, scientists have pumped more energy into experimental fusion reactors than the total new energy created in the process.
- This setback has made nuclear fission not fusion the default preference in the pursuit of limitless, zero-carbon power, despite its health and safety risks.
3. Future of Energy
- The nuclear fusion reaction has a higher energy potential than all other energy sources we know.
- It can release nearly 4 million times more energy than chemical reactions like burning coal, oil or gas and four times more than nuclear fission, the process, currently used in all nuclear power plants around the world.
- Discovered in the early 20th century, fusion is seen as the future of energy by many policymakers, especially in Europe.
4. Nuclear Fusion Project
- The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is a large collaborative project between nuclear fusion experts from 35 nations.
- Located a couple of hours from the scenic coast of southern France, ITER stands out along the idyllic landscape surrounding it.
- The project's compound is laden with metal sheds, workshops and equipment.
- Busy scientists and technicians roam the reactor's campus in hard hats, rubber boots and neon vests.
- The future of fusion energy is bright and generating fusion energy is like burning firewood.
5. Energy from nuclear fusion
- Atoms are composed of a nucleus (Containing protons and neutrons) and electrons.
- In fusion, two atoms are merged into one by smashing their nuclei.
- In a bid to achieve a stable nucleus, the newly formed atom sometimes chucks out a high-energy neutron previously used to bind the neutron to the nucleus.
- Nuclear fusion scientists want to convert this excess energy into electricity that lights up our homes.
6. Fusion Vs. Fission
- In fission, instead of fusing two light atoms, a heavy atom is split into two or more.
- All nuclear power plants in the world use fission reactors to generate electricity.
- France, where ITER is located, gets 70 per cent of its energy from nuclear fission.
- The Chornobyl disaster,
- Meltdown at Fukushima and
- The US Three Mile Island partial meltdown.
- The main difference between nuclear fission and fusion is the radioactivity of the fuel each method creates.
- "In fission, the uranium that you use and the plutonium that you create are both radioactive and once you have gotten the energy out of them, you are still left with radioactive material."
- Of the two base materials considered most efficient for fusion energy, deuterium is not radioactive, but tritium is. However, its radiation is comparatively weak and short-lived.
- The materials are correct even on an industrial scale they limit the radioactivity from fusion to 100 to 200 years, which is far more manageable than if you talk about the 40, 000 years we see in fission.
7. Green Advantage
- In addition to being highly efficient, proponents say nuclear energy could dramatically reduce our dependence on fossil fuels.
- Nuclear energy itself is considered a carbon-free alternative to fossil fuels because its creation does not emit greenhouse gasses its major byproduct is helium, an inert, non-toxic gas.
- Further, deuterium is abundant in seawater and scientists are trying to produce tritium using lithium in situ.
- Renewable energy sources like wind and solar alone cannot meet global baseline energy needs.
- Nuclear fusion, if successful, could provide well above that.
- While all of this sounds rosy, it is still a distant dream.
- For fusion to become a reality we need a technological breakthrough in plasma physics.
8. Fusion on Earth
- Technically, it's difficult to achieve a fusion reaction that is self-sustained and stable.
- The sunshine and the warmth we feel on Earth are the results of fusion the process occurs naturally in the core of the sun under extreme temperature and pressure.
- The challenge is to replicate what happens in the sun's core without the pressure arising from the gravity of the sun's heavy mass.
- To achieve fusion on Earth, gasses need to be heated to extremely high temperatures of about 150 million degrees Celsius (270 million degrees Fahrenheit), around 10 times the temperature of the sun's core.
- At this point, the gasses become plasma, which is nearly a million times lighter than the air we breathe.
- All the protons, neutrons and electrons that compose it are separated.
- Fusion researchers have established that creating a plasma by heating a mixture of deuterium and tritium is the easiest way to achieve an environment to fuse and yield energy.
- At ITER, a device called the tokamak uses a strong magnetic field to confine the plasma used for fusion experiments.
- In these extreme conditions particles in this plasma collide rapidly, creating heat.
- But paradoxically, as the temperature rises even further, the collision rate and therefore the heating effect drops.
- It is like the plasma is switched off beyond a certain point.
- To go back to the wood analogy, it is like not knowing how to ignite a fire that will sustain the "burning plasm".
- This is the biggest challenge faced by fusion experiments around the world.
9. The Safety fuse
- What is one's woe is another's boon. The "switching off" of the plasma in unfavourable conditions also means that the reaction stops if there is any instability. This makes fusion safer than fission.
- A meltdown like the one at Fukushima is unlikely to happen in a fusion reactor, says Gilles Perrier, head of safety and quality at ITER.
- In a fission reactor, there would be a radioactive core that would still need to cool if the reactor were to shut down.
- In fission, the risk of an accident is much higher. In fusion, it is really low.
- Confinement of plasma
- Reduction of radiation exposure and
- Prevention of tritium contamination.
- The plasma is confined in a vacuum vessel.
- Even in the worst-case scenario of a plasma leak, the impact will be confined to the site.
10. From experiment to electricity
- At this point, the most electricity scientists have been able to generate from fusion is 59 megajoules of energy over five seconds.
- That is about enough electricity to run a small light bulb for two months.
- The challenge scientists are grappling with now is how to produce this fuel on a larger scale.
- The ongoing from a fusion experiment to an electricity-generating reactor is like going from burning some wood to a coal power plant.
- While it is a huge challenge that the experimental reactor at ITER will be functional by the end of the decade and can help set up a demo power plant in the next 30 years.
- At the end of the day, nuclear fusion technology will take time which some scientists say we don't have.
11. The Way Forward
- Fusion power certainly cannot solve the energy crisis this winter and it won't help cut emissions soon.
- In his book "The Fairy Tale of Nuclear Fusion," nuclear scientist LJ Reinders suggests that fusion power will arrive too late to help alleviate our urgent climate problems.
- Investing in nuclear fusion is not about addressing our energy needs of today but in the second half of the century.
For Prelims & Mains
For Prelims: Nuclear energy, Fusion Energy, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, Fusion, Fission,
For Mains:
1. Nuclear fusion is a “greener” alternative to what we’re doing now, and how far have we come in generating electricity from this process? Comment (250 Words)
2. Technically we already harness commercially viable energy from fast-flung neutrons in nuclear fission power plants. So why don’t we just stick to it? (250 Words)
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INDIAN SPACE MISSIONS
- The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) achieved a significant milestone with the successful launch of the Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX) mission
- The PSLV C60 rocket, carrying two small satellites named SDX01 (Chaser) and SDX02 (Target), along with 24 other payloads, was launched from the first launchpad at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, at 10 p.m
- Approximately 15 minutes post-launch, the two satellites, each weighing around 220 kg, were deployed into a 475-km circular orbit as planned
- The satellites have been accurately placed into the designated orbit, and their solar panels have been successfully deployed. The SpaDeX satellites are now aligned one behind the other, and over the coming days, the inter-satellite distance will expand by about 20 km, setting the stage for the rendezvous and docking procedures to commence
- The SpaDeX mission is a demonstration of advanced technologies required for spacecraft rendezvous, docking, and undocking—capabilities mastered by only a select group of spacefaring nations. This technology is crucial for future endeavors such as sending Indian astronauts to the moon, returning samples from the lunar surface, and establishing an Indian space station
- ISRO also highlighted that the PSLV’s precision would be instrumental in imparting a slight relative velocity between the Target and Chaser spacecraft during separation from the launch vehicle
- This incremental velocity will allow the Target spacecraft to gradually create a 10-20 km separation from the Chaser within a day. At this distance, the propulsion system of the Target spacecraft will regulate the relative velocity to facilitate further operations
- Aditya L1: Following the success of its lunar mission, India launched its solar science mission, Aditya-L1, on September 2, 2023. The initial launch phase, facilitated by ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), was the simplest part of the mission. On January 6, 2024, the spacecraft executed several maneuvers to reach an orbit around the first Earth-Sun Lagrange point (L1). By July 2, 2024, Aditya-L1 completed its first orbit around L1 and, in collaboration with ground-based observatories and lunar orbit spacecraft, studied a solar storm in May 2024.
- Gaganyaan TV-D1: As part of the ‘Gaganyaan’ human spaceflight program, ISRO conducted its first abort mission using a modified L-40 Vikas engine to build the Test Vehicle (TV). The test took place on October 21, 2023, and successfully demonstrated the Crew Escape System (CES)'s ability to detach from the TV, transport the crew module to safety, and decelerate before landing in the Bay of Bengal. The crew module was subsequently recovered by the Indian Navy's INS Shakthi.
- XPoSat: ISRO marked the beginning of 2024 with the launch of the X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) on January 1. This satellite aims to study the polarization of radiation from various celestial bodies and is only the second such observatory in space, following NASA's Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IPEX), launched in 2021. The onboard instruments, named XSPECT and POLIX, started operations on January 5 and January 10, respectively.
- INSAT-3DS: The meteorological satellite INSAT-3DS was launched by ISRO on February 17 using a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV). This mission was crucial for demonstrating the GSLV's reliability before the upcoming NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission, set to launch in early 2025. This GSLV model had previously successfully launched the NVS-01 satellite in 2023.
- RLV-TD: Using a scaled-down version of the Reusable Launch Vehicle named Pushpak, ISRO carried out two landing experiments—LEX-02 and LEX-03—on March 22 and June 7 at its Aeronautical Testing Range in Challakere, Karnataka. These experiments simulated landing conditions by dropping the Pushpak vehicle from a Chinook helicopter: LEX-02 tested along its planned landing path, while LEX-03 deviated 500 meters to the side. These successful tests have paved the way for the ‘Orbital Return Flight Experiment’.
- SSLV: On August 16, ISRO conducted the third and final development flight of the Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV), successfully placing the EOS-08 and SR-0 Demosat satellites into orbit. With two consecutive successful test flights, ISRO concluded the SSLV’s development phase and approved its transfer to the industry. The EOS-08 satellite carried three payloads: one for infrared earth observation, one to test global satellite navigation system reflections for earth observation, and an ultraviolet dosimeter and alarm system intended for use in the Gaganyaan crew module
- The primary goal is to demonstrate ISRO’s capability to send humans into low Earth orbit and bring them back safely
- Ensuring the safety of the crew is paramount, which includes a robust Crew Escape System (CES) for emergency situations
- The mission will advance India’s expertise in space technology, including life support systems, crew modules, and mission control operations
- The spacecraft will house up to three astronauts and is designed to support life in space, including a heat shield to protect the crew during re-entry into Earth's atmosphere
- The mission will use a GSLV Mk III rocket, a heavy-lift launch vehicle capable of carrying the crew module into space
- The selected astronauts are undergoing rigorous training, including survival training, spacewalking, and other mission-specific preparations, both in India and abroad
- ISRO is collaborating with international agencies like NASA and the Russian space agency for training and technology exchange
One of ISRO's recent key priorities has been training its astronaut candidates, known as Gaganyatris, for space missions.
On February 27, Prime Minister Modi announced the names of the candidates: Wing Commander Shubhanshu Shukla, along with Group Captains Prashanth Nair, Ajit Krishnan, and Angad Pratap.
Earlier this month, Shukla and Nair traveled to the United States for advanced training in preparation for a flight to the International Space Station (ISS). Shukla is expected to be the primary astronaut for this mission, with Nair serving as his backup. The mission will be conducted by the private company Axiom Space, with support from NASA and using SpaceX's launch vehicle and crew capsule. This flight is planned for 2025.
ISRO has also scheduled at least four additional abort tests using its Test Vehicle before the first crewed flight. The initial uncrewed Gaganyaan mission is anticipated to take place in late 2024
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- The NGLV is expected to have a significantly higher payload capacity than its predecessors. It will be capable of carrying heavier payloads to a variety of orbits, including low Earth orbit (LEO), geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), and beyond.
- It aims to carry payloads of approximately 10-20 tons to LEO and 4-10 tons to GTO, making it suitable for a wide range of missions
- One of the critical features of the NGLV is its potential for reusability. ISRO is focusing on developing reusable components, such as the first stage booster, to reduce launch costs and improve turnaround times.
- This aligns with global trends where reusable rockets, like SpaceX’s Falcon 9, have demonstrated significant cost savings and operational efficiency
- The NGLV will feature a modular design, allowing it to be customized for different types of missions. This flexibility will enable the vehicle to support a variety of payloads, including satellites, space probes, and human missions.
- The modularity also simplifies the integration of new technologies and upgrades, ensuring the NGLV remains relevant for future needs
- ISRO plans to equip the NGLV with advanced propulsion systems, potentially using a combination of cryogenic, semi-cryogenic, and solid rocket engines.
- This approach will enhance efficiency and reliability, providing greater thrust and reducing the environmental impact of launches
- The NGLV will incorporate the latest advancements in avionics, guidance systems, and materials science to improve reliability and safety
- NSIL manages and coordinates the launch of commercial satellites using ISRO’s launch vehicles, such as the PSLV, GSLV, and the upcoming Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV).
- The company offers launch services to domestic and international customers, focusing on small and medium-sized satellite deployments
- NSIL is involved in manufacturing, assembling, and delivering satellites to various customers. It leverages ISRO’s expertise and infrastructure to produce satellites for different applications, including communication, earth observation, and navigation
- The company provides satellite-based services, including transponder leasing, satellite communication, and broadband services. These services cater to various sectors, including telecommunications, broadcasting, and disaster management
- NSIL facilitates the transfer of ISRO-developed technologies to Indian industries, promoting indigenous development of space technology.
- The company offers technical consultancy and support services to help industries and organizations develop space-related capabilities.
- NSIL promotes the use of space-based applications, such as remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS), for agriculture, forestry, urban planning, and environmental monitoring
Missions
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- IN-SPACe is designed to open up the Indian space sector to private companies, startups, and academia, enabling them to participate in space missions, satellite launches, and the development of space-related technologies.
- It encourages private investment in space infrastructure and services, aiming to build a robust space ecosystem in India.
- The agency acts as a regulatory authority, providing necessary approvals and authorizations for private entities to undertake space activities. This includes satellite launches, building and operating ground stations, and providing satellite-based services.
- IN-SPACe ensures compliance with national and international space laws, safety standards, and protocols.
- IN-SPACe serves as a bridge between ISRO and private industry, facilitating access to ISRO’s facilities, expertise, and infrastructure. This includes access to testing facilities, launch pads, and technical support.
- The agency promotes collaborative projects, joint missions, and technology development initiatives between ISRO and private players
- IN-SPACe works to simplify the regulatory framework and reduce entry barriers for private companies. It aims to create a conducive environment for private sector growth by streamlining procedures and providing clear guidelines for space activities
- IN-SPACe is responsible for granting licenses and authorizations for various space-related activities, including satellite launches, ground station operations, and space-based services
For Prelims: PSLV, GSLV, GSLV Mk-III, SSLV
For Mains: GS III- Science & Technology- Satellite Applications, Challenges and Solutions
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)
1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
3. GSLV Mk III is a four- staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 2
D. 3 only
Answer: A
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