• Salmonella is a genus of bacteria that includes a wide range of species, some of which can cause illness in humans and animals. These bacteria are commonly associated with foodborne illnesses, particularly through the consumption of contaminated food or water.
• Salmonella infections in humans can lead to symptoms such as diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, fever, and vomiting. In severe cases, particularly in vulnerable populations such as infants, elderly individuals, or those with weakened immune systems, Salmonella infections can be life-threatening and may require medical intervention.
• Salmonella bacteria are often found in raw or undercooked animal products, such as poultry, eggs, meat, and dairy, but they can also contaminate fruits, vegetables, and other foods during processing or handling. Proper food handling, cooking, and hygiene practices are essential for preventing Salmonella infections.

3.  What is ethylene oxide?

• Ethylene oxide is a colourless, flammable gas with a slightly sweet odour. It is a highly reactive compound used primarily as an intermediate in the production of other chemicals, including ethylene glycol, which is commonly used as antifreeze and in the production of polyester fibres and resins.
• Ethylene oxide is also widely used as a sterilizing agent for medical equipment and supplies, as it has excellent penetrating properties and can effectively kill bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
• Additionally, it is used in the production of various consumer products such as detergents, solvents, and plastics.
• While ethylene oxide has many industrial applications, it is also considered a hazardous substance due to its flammability and potential health risks.
• Prolonged exposure to ethylene oxide can irritate the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract, and may cause headaches, nausea, and dizziness.
• Long-term exposure to high levels of ethylene oxide has been associated with an increased risk of certain cancers, particularly leukaemia and lymphoma.
• As a result, strict safety regulations and guidelines are in place to minimize exposure to ethylene oxide in occupational settings and to ensure its safe handling and disposal.

4. Importance of food safety and WHO’s five keys to safer food

• Food safety is a critical issue because unsafe food can lead to various health problems, including foodborne illnesses, which can range from mild gastrointestinal discomfort to severe and life-threatening conditions.
• Foodborne illnesses are caused by consuming food or beverages contaminated with harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites, or chemical substances. These contaminants can enter the food supply chain at any stage, from production and processing to distribution, preparation, and consumption.
• Ensuring food safety is essential for protecting public health, reducing the burden of foodborne diseases, and promoting overall well-being. Unsafe food can pose significant economic costs, including medical expenses, lost productivity, and damage to the reputation of food producers and suppliers.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed five keys to safer food, which are practical guidelines aimed at reducing the risk of foodborne illnesses. These keys emphasize basic principles of food safety and hygiene that should be followed by individuals, food producers, and food handlers:

1. The importance of maintaining good personal hygiene, such as washing hands thoroughly with soap and water before handling food, especially after using the toilet, changing diapers, or handling pets.
2. Prevent cross-contamination by keeping raw meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs separate from cooked or ready-to-eat foods during storage, preparation, and serving.
3. The importance of cooking food thoroughly to kill harmful bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Food should be cooked to the appropriate internal temperature, using a food thermometer to ensure that it reaches the recommended safe temperature.
4. The importance of keeping food at safe temperatures to prevent the growth of harmful microorganisms. Perishable foods should be stored in the refrigerator or freezer, and cooked food should be kept hot or cold as appropriate.
5. The importance of using safe water and raw materials to prevent contamination of food. Water used for drinking, cooking, and washing should be safe and free from contaminants, and raw materials should be sourced from reputable suppliers and inspected for quality and safety.

Food safety in India faces several challenges, including

• Contamination of food with bacteria, viruses, parasites, and chemical substances is a significant challenge. This contamination can occur at various stages of the food supply chain, including production, processing, distribution, and preparation.
• India's food safety infrastructure, including laboratories, testing facilities, and regulatory agencies, is often inadequate, particularly in rural areas. Limited resources and capacity constraints hinder effective monitoring and enforcement of food safety regulations.
• A significant portion of India's food production and distribution occurs in the informal sector, which may lack proper hygiene practices, quality control measures, and regulatory oversight. Informal vendors, street food vendors, and small-scale producers may operate in unregulated environments, increasing the risk of foodborne illnesses.
• Inadequate sanitation and hygiene practices at various stages of food production, handling, and preparation contribute to food contamination. Issues such as improper handwashing, inadequate cleaning of utensils and equipment, and lack of safe water sources can compromise food safety.
• Foodborne illnesses are a major public health concern in India, with millions of cases reported annually. Poor food safety practices, contaminated food and water sources, and inadequate surveillance and reporting contribute to the prevalence of foodborne diseases.
• Limited awareness among consumers about food safety practices, foodborne hazards, and their rights and responsibilities regarding food safety contributes to the challenge. Many consumers may lack knowledge about safe food handling, storage, and preparation practices.
• While India has food safety regulations in place, there are gaps in enforcement and compliance. Weak regulatory oversight, inadequate inspection mechanisms, and corruption can undermine the effectiveness of food safety regulations.

6. The important initiatives for food safety in India

Several important initiatives have been implemented in India to improve food safety and ensure the well-being of consumers. Some of these initiatives include

• The Food Safety and Standards Act (FSSA) established a comprehensive regulatory framework for food safety in India. It created the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), which is responsible for setting food safety standards, regulating food production and distribution, and ensuring compliance with food safety regulations.
• The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is the apex regulatory body for food safety in India. It is responsible for setting food safety standards, regulating food businesses, conducting surveillance and monitoring, and promoting awareness about food safety among consumers and food handlers.
• FSSAI launched the Eat Right India campaign aims to promote healthy eating habits and safe food practices among consumers. It includes initiatives such as the Eat Right Challenge, Eat Right Campus, and Eat Right School program to encourage healthy eating choices and raise awareness about food safety.
• FSSAI has introduced the Food Safety Training and Certification (FoSTaC) program to provide training and certification in food safety and hygiene to food handlers and industry professionals. The program aims to improve food safety standards and practices across the food industry.
• FSSAI conducts regular surveillance and monitoring of food products to ensure compliance with food safety standards. This includes sampling and testing of food products for contaminants, adulterants, and other hazards to identify and address potential risks to public health.
• FSSAI has embraced technology to enhance food safety compliance and monitoring. Initiatives such as the Food Safety Compliance System (FoSCoS) enable online registration, licensing, and monitoring of food businesses, streamlining regulatory processes and improving transparency.
• The Government of India has established a network of national food testing laboratories to enhance food safety testing and analysis capabilities. These laboratories play a crucial role in ensuring the quality and safety of food products through rigorous testing and analysis.

7. The State Food Safety Index (SFSI)

The State Food Safety Index (SFSI) is an initiative launched by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) to assess and rank the performance of states and union territories in implementing food safety standards and regulations. The SFSI aims to promote healthy competition among states and territories, encourage improvements in food safety standards, and enhance transparency and accountability in food safety governance.

The SFSI evaluates states and union territories based on various parameters related to food safety, including

•  Assessment of compliance with food safety regulations, including licensing, registration, and hygiene standards for food businesses.
• Evaluation of the availability and capacity of food testing laboratories for analyzing food samples and detecting contaminants and adulterants.
• Assessment of the availability of trained personnel and resources for food safety management and enforcement, including training programs and capacity-building initiatives.
• Evaluation of measures to promote consumer awareness about food safety, including information dissemination, education campaigns, and grievance redressal mechanisms.
• Assessment of the effectiveness of governance structures, institutional mechanisms, and regulatory frameworks for ensuring food safety at the state and local levels.

8. About FSSAI

The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is an autonomous body established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. It operates under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India. FSSAI is responsible for formulating and enforcing food safety standards, regulating food production, processing, distribution, and sale, and promoting public health through safe food practices.

Key functions of FSSAI include

• FSSAI establishes scientific standards for food safety, quality, and hygiene, covering various aspects of food production, processing, packaging, labelling, and distribution.
• FSSAI regulates food businesses by issuing licenses and registrations to ensure compliance with food safety regulations. It categorizes food businesses based on size, scale, and nature of operations and mandates licensing or registration accordingly.
• FSSAI conducts surveillance, monitoring, and inspection of food products and food businesses to ensure compliance with food safety standards. It samples and tests food products for contaminants, adulterants, and other hazards to protect public health.
• FSSAI promotes consumer awareness about food safety and hygiene through various initiatives, campaigns, and educational programs. It provides information and resources to empower consumers to make informed choices about safe food practices.
• FSSAI conducts capacity-building programs, training workshops, and skill development initiatives to enhance the knowledge and skills of food handlers, industry professionals, and regulatory authorities in food safety management and enforcement.
• FSSAI collaborates with various stakeholders, including government agencies, industry associations, academic institutions, and international organizations, to strengthen food safety governance, promote best practices, and address emerging challenges in food safety.

9. The legislative frameworks of FSSAI

The legislative framework of the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) primarily consists of the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, along with related rules, regulations, and guidelines. 

• Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act) is the primary legislation governing food safety and standards in India. It establishes FSSAI as the apex regulatory body responsible for formulating, implementing, and enforcing food safety standards and regulations across the country.
• Food Safety and Standards Rules, 2011 provide detailed provisions and procedures for the implementation of the FSS Act. These rules cover various aspects of food safety, including licensing and registration of food businesses, food safety standards, labelling and packaging requirements, food additives, contaminants, and enforcement mechanisms.
• Food Safety and Standards (Licensing and Registration of Food Businesses) Regulations, 2011 prescribe the requirements and procedures for obtaining licenses and registrations for food businesses, including manufacturers, processors, distributors, retailers, and importers.
• Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and Labeling) Regulations, 2011 specify the labelling and packaging requirements for food products, including mandatory labelling information such as product name, ingredients, nutritional information, allergen declarations, and date marking.
• Food Safety and Standards (Contaminants, Toxins, and Residues) Regulations, 2011 establish maximum limits for various contaminants, toxins, and residues in food products to ensure consumer safety and prevent adverse health effects.
• Food Safety and Standards (Food Product Standards and Food Additives) Regulations, 2011 prescribe food product standards and specifications, including permitted additives, colours, flavours, and other ingredients used in food processing.
• Food Safety and Standards (Prohibition and Restrictions on Sales) Regulations, 2011 prohibit or restrict the sale and distribution of certain food products that are deemed unsafe or harmful to health, such as adulterated, misbranded, or substandard foods.

ARMED FORCES (SPECIAL POWERS) ACT, 1958 (AFSPA)

 

 

1. Context

As ethnic violence continues, the Centre and the Manipur government are set to review the scope of the Armed Forces Special Powers Act in the northeastern State. The six-month extension of the AFSPA in Manipur comes to an end on September 30.

 

2.Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958

The Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958, often referred to as AFSPA, is an Indian law that grants special powers to the armed forces in designated "disturbed areas" in order to maintain public order. The act was originally enacted on September 11, 1958, to deal with the insurgency in the northeastern states of India.

The Act in its original form was promulgated by the British in response to the Quit India movement in 1942. After Independence, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru decided to retain the Act, which was first brought in as an ordnance and then notified as an Act in 1958

 

3.Key Provisions of the Act

Key provisions of AFSPA include:

1. Arrest and Search: Under AFSPA, security forces are empowered to arrest anyone without a warrant and to search any premises in the designated area if they have "reasonable suspicion" that the person or place is linked to unlawful activities.

2. Shoot to Kill: In certain situations, the act provides legal immunity to armed forces personnel who use force, even if it results in the death of a person, as long as they believe it to be necessary for the maintenance of public order.

3. Detention: The act allows for the detention of individuals without filing formal charges for up to six months, extendable by another six months with permission from the government.

4. Legal Protections: Under AFSPA, legal proceedings against armed forces personnel can only be initiated with the prior approval of the central government, making it difficult to hold them accountable for alleged abuses.

5. Designated Disturbed Areas: The act is typically applied in areas that are declared "disturbed" by the state or central government. This designation allows for the deployment of armed forces with these special powers.

4. Challenges around AFSPA

• AFSPA has been a subject of significant controversy and criticism over the years. Human rights organizations and activists have raised concerns about its potential for abuse, including allegations of extrajudicial killings, torture, and other human rights violations by security forces.
• Critics argue that the act undermines accountability and can lead to the misuse of power by the armed forces
• The AFSPA has been criticized for giving the armed forces too much power and for violating the human rights of civilians
• There have been numerous allegations of extrajudicial killings, torture, and other human rights abuses by the armed forces under the AFSPA
• The AFSPA has also been criticized for undermining the authority of the state police and for creating a climate of fear and distrust among civilians

 

5. Current Status of AFSPA

• The AFSPA is currently in force in the states of Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, and parts of Arunachal Pradesh.
• In 2022, the Government of India partially lifted the AFSPA from parts of Assam, Manipur, and Nagaland.
• There have been calls for the AFSPA to be repealed altogether, but the government has argued that it is necessary to maintain public order in the affected areas.

6. Way forward

Various states in India, especially in the northeastern region and Jammu and Kashmir, have experienced prolonged periods of insurgency and conflict, and AFSPA has often been applied in response to these security challenges. However, there have been calls for its repeal or significant amendment to address the concerns of human rights violations and improve accountability.

 

 

For Prelims: AFSPA, Disturbed Areas, North Eastern States, Fifth Schedule, Sixth Schedule of Indian Constitution For Mains: 1.Discuss the historical evolution and significance of the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958. Examine the criticisms and concerns associated with its application in conflict zones in India. What reforms, if any, are required to address these concerns? 2.Critically evaluate the international perspective on the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958, and its impact on India's image as a democratic nation. How does AFSPA affect India's relations with neighboring countries and international human rights organizations?

 

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Recently, the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act was completely removed from which one of the following States? (UPSC CAPF 2018) A. Arunachal Pradesh B. Nagaland C. Meghalaya D. Assam Answer (C)

Source: indianexpress

 

SOUTHWEST MONSOON

 

 

1. Context

The southwest monsoon has begun withdrawing from Rajasthan, a week later than its scheduled date.Though withdrawal has begun from west Rajasthan and Kutch, the monsoon is expected to recede from Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat during the next 24 hours, says a bulletin from the India Meteorological Department (IMD

 

2. What is the southwest monsoon?

 

• The southwest monsoon is a seasonal weather pattern that brings significant rainfall to large parts of South Asia, particularly India, between June and September
• The southwest monsoon typically begins in early June and lasts until late September. It starts with the arrival of the monsoon winds in the southern part of India, usually marked by the onset over the state of Kerala

• The southwest monsoon brings about 70-90% of India’s annual rainfall. The distribution of rainfall varies, with some regions receiving heavy rains, while others may experience scanty showers.
• The Western Ghats, the northeastern states, and the Himalayan foothills typically receive very heavy rainfall.
• The monsoon is critical for the Kharif crop season in India, which includes crops like rice, maize, pulses, and cotton. Adequate and timely monsoon rains are essential for a good harvest
• The monsoon starts retreating from northwestern India in early September and completely withdraws from the Indian subcontinent by mid-October. This phase is also known as the retreating or northeast monsoon

Mechanism:

• High-Pressure Area: During the summer, intense heating of the landmass in the Indian subcontinent creates a low-pressure area over northern India and the Tibetan Plateau.
• Low-Pressure Area: The Indian Ocean remains relatively cooler, creating a high-pressure area.
• Wind Movement: Air moves from the high-pressure area over the ocean to the low-pressure area over the land, carrying moisture from the ocean and resulting in rainfall.

The monsoon trough is an elongated area of low pressure extending from the heat low over Pakistan and northwestern India to the Bay of Bengal. It influences the distribution and intensity of the monsoon rains.

 

3. What are easterly and westerly winds?

 

Easterly Winds

 

• Easterly and westerly winds refer to the direction from which the winds originate
• Easterly winds are winds that blow from the east towards the west
• Easterly winds can affect weather patterns, including the development of tropical storms and cyclones. For instance, easterly waves in the tropics can lead to the formation of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans

Characteristics:

• Trade Winds: One of the most well-known examples of easterly winds are the trade winds. These winds blow from the east towards the west in the tropics, from the subtropical high-pressure areas toward the equatorial low-pressure areas.
• Tropical Regions: In the tropical regions, particularly between 30 degrees north and south of the equator, easterly winds are prevalent. These are crucial for the weather patterns and climatic conditions in these regions.
• Monsoon Winds: During certain seasons, such as the northeast monsoon in India, easterly winds play a significant role. These winds bring dry air from the land towards the ocean during the winter months.

Westerly Winds

 

• Westerly winds are winds that blow from the west towards the east

• Westerly winds play a significant role in the weather of temperate regions, influencing the climate and the movement of storm systems.
• They are also responsible for carrying warm and moist air from the oceans inland, affecting precipitation patterns in coastal and inland regions.
• The westerlies can affect transoceanic travel and weather prediction due to their influence on the movement of high and low-pressure systems

Characteristics:

• Prevailing Westerlies: These winds are predominant in the mid-latitudes (between 30 and 60 degrees north and south of the equator). They blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards the poles.
• Jet Streams: High-altitude westerly winds known as jet streams are important in influencing weather patterns and the movement of weather systems across the globe. They are fast flowing and occur in the upper levels of the atmosphere.
• Polar Front: In the mid-latitudes, the westerlies interact with polar easterlies near the polar front, leading to the development of extratropical cyclones and storms

 

 

4.How does monsoon occur in India?

Monsoons in India occur due to seasonal changes in wind patterns and temperature differences between land and sea.

Here's a concise explanation of the process:

• Differential heating: During summer, the Indian landmass heats up more quickly than the surrounding Indian Ocean.
• Low pressure system: The heated land creates a low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent.
• Wind direction shift: This low pressure draws in moisture-laden winds from the cooler Indian Ocean towards the land.
• Orographic lift: As these winds encounter geographical features like the Western Ghats or the Himalayas, they are forced to rise.
• Condensation and precipitation: The rising air cools, causing water vapor to condense and form clouds, leading to heavy rainfall.
• Duration: This pattern typically lasts from June to September, bringing the majority of India's annual rainfall.

 

5.What are the conditions that determine the onset of monsoon?

 

• The primary driver is the temperature difference between the land and the surrounding sea. During summer, the land heats up faster than the ocean, creating a low-pressure area over the land and a high-pressure area over the ocean. This pressure difference leads to the movement of moist air from the ocean to the land
• Warm sea surface temperatures are crucial as they increase the evaporation rate, contributing to the formation of moist air masses that drive the monsoon rains.
• The monsoon winds, which are part of the larger atmospheric circulation, shift according to the seasonal temperature differences. The southwest monsoon, for instance, is driven by the southwest winds that carry moisture from the Indian Ocean to the Indian subcontinent.
• The geographical features, such as mountain ranges, play a significant role. For example, the Western Ghats in India force moist air to rise, cool, and condense, leading to heavy rainfall on the windward side
• The movement and strength of the high-pressure systems over the oceans and low-pressure systems over the land influence the intensity and timing of the monsoon.
• Phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña can affect the strength and timing of the monsoon. For example, El Niño can lead to weaker monsoons due to altered wind patterns and sea surface temperatures

6.What is the impact of La-Nina and El Nino on monsoon?

 

La Niña and El Niño, both phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon, have significant impacts on the monsoon patterns around the world.

 

Here’s how each affects the monsoon:

El Niño

• El Niño is generally associated with a weaker Indian monsoon. The warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean during El Niño tends to disrupt the normal atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to reduced rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.
• The onset of the monsoon can be delayed, and the overall intensity of the rainfall during the monsoon season might be lower than usual
•  El Niño often brings drier conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, leading to droughts and reduced rainfall
• Eastern and southern Africa may experience drier conditions as well

La Niña

• La Niña, characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, is typically associated with a stronger Indian monsoon. It often leads to increased rainfall over the Indian subcontinent
• The enhanced monsoon can lead to heavier rains and potentially more frequent and intense flooding
• La Niña tends to bring wetter conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, potentially causing heavy rains and flooding
• La Niña can lead to wetter conditions in parts of northern South America

 

7.Way Forward

 

The intermittent development of a wind shear zone — where winds move with different velocities and directions — along latitudes 20 ° N between central and peninsular India

 

 

 

For Prelims: Indian and World Geography For Mains: GS-I, GS-III: Important Geophysical phenomena and environment

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2012)   1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India. 2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.   Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 Only B. 2 Only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor Answer (C) The duration of the monsoon indeed decreases from southern India to northern India. The southern part of India experiences the monsoon earlier and for a longer duration compared to the northern part. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west. The eastern part of the northern plains receives more rainfall compared to the western part, largely due to the influence of the Bay of Bengal branch of the Southwest Monsoon.

 

 

Source: The Hindu