2. About drugresistant TB

• As of 2017, India accounted for around one-fourth of the world's burden of multidrug-resistant (MDR) TB and of extensively drug-resistant (XDR) TB and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) TB.
• MDR TB resists treatment by at least two frontline drugs in TB treatment, isoniazid and rifampicin.
• XDR TB resists these two drugs, fluoroquinolones, and any second-line injectable drug.
  XDR TB is rarer than MDR TB there were 1, 24, 000 cases of the latter in India (2021) versus 2, 650 cases of the former (2017).
• TB incidence in India has been on the decline, but MDR TB and XDR TB endanger initiatives to locally eradicate the disease.
• In the first two years of the pandemic, there were reports that TB treatment was hit by disrupted supply chains, availability of healthcare workers for non-pandemic work, and access to drug distribution centres.
• A peer-reviewed 2020 study found that the incidence of MDR TB was "strongly correlated with treatment failure and spread through contact and not to treatment compliance".

3. Treatment for drug-resistant TB

• TB is an infection of the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the lungs, but often in other organs as well.
• It can be treated by strictly adhering to the doses and frequencies of drugs prescribed by a physician.
• Deviations from this schedule can lead the bacteria to become drug-resistant.
• Yet they happen because the drugs often have side effects that diminish the quality of life and or because patients haven't been afforded access to the requisite drugs on time.
• Drugresistant TB is harder to treat. One important option for those diagnosed with pulmonary MDR TB is bedaquiline.
• In 2018, the World Health Organisation replaced two injectable drugs for MDR TB with an oral regimen that included bedaquiline.
• At this time, bedaquiline had not completed phase III Trials.
• The recommendation was based on smaller studies, outcomes in TB elimination programmes worldwide, the difficulty of treating MDR TB and close monitoring of patients receiving the drug.

4. Effectiveness of Bedaquiline

• Typically, bedaquiline needs to be taken for six months: at a higher dose in the first two weeks followed by a lower dosage for 22 weeks.
• This period is shorter than other treatment routines for pulmonary MDR TB, which can last 924 months.
• One phase II Clinical trial observed that culture conversion (turning a patient's sputum culture from positive to negative) "at 24 weeks was durable and associated with a high likelihood of response at 120 weeks", due to bedaquiline.
• Unlike Second-line treatment options that are injected and can have severe side effects, like hearing loss, bedaquiline is available as tablets and is less harmful, although it has potential side effects of its own.
• Studies until 2018 found that it could be toxic to the heart and the liver. This is part of why it is recommended only as a treatment of last resort.
• India's Health Ministry has guidelines for bedaquiline use as part of the Programmatic Management of MDR TB under the National TB Elimination Programme.
• The WHO's decision revitalised a debate about the ethics of making a much-needed but insufficiently tested drug available quickly versus lowering the safety threshold for pharmaceutical companies producing drugs for desperate patients.

5. Reasons for the rejection of the Patent application

• Both groups argued that J&J's method to produce a "Solid pharmaceutical composition" of bedaquiline is "obvious, known in the art" and doesn't require an "inventive step".
• According to the Indian Patent Act 1970 Section 2 (1) (ja), an "inventive step" is an invention that is "not obvious to a person skilled in the art".
• The latter also contended that the current application drew significantly from a previous patent, WO 2004/011436, which discussed a similar compound on which bedaquiline is based and whose priority date (2002) well preceded the new application.
• The Patent Office rejected the application on these and other grounds, including Sections 3d and 3e of the Act.
• These pertain to the "mere discovery of a new form of a known substance which does not result in the enhancement of the known efficacy of that substance" and "a substance obtained by a mere admixture resulting only in the aggregation of the properties of the components thereof", respectively, which are not patentable.

6. Significance of the rejection 

• India has the largest population of people living with drug-resistant TB.
• J&J's patent on bedaquiline meant the drug cost $400 (revised to $340 in 2020) per person, plus the cost of other drugs.
• The rejection is expected to lower the cost of bedaquiline by up to 80 per cent.
• So far, the Indian government has directly procured and distributed the drug through Statelevel TB programmes.
• After July 2023, manufacturers of generic drugs such as Lupin will be able to produce generic versions of bedaquiline.
• The argument based on WO 2004/011436 is also relevant to "evergreening a strategy where a patent owner continuously extends their rights and or applies multiple patents for the same entity. Indian law disallows this.

For Prelims & Mains

2.3. Impact 

3. The Historical Significance of Maui and Lahaina

• Maui is a popular tourist destination known for its beautiful beaches and lush rainforests.
• Lahaina was the capital of the Hawaiian kingdom from 1820 to 1845.
• The town is home to many historical landmarks, including the Waiola Church, which was built in 1832.
• The fires have caused extensive damage to Lahaina, including the destruction of many historic buildings.

4. Reasons for the Fires in Hawaii Been So Devastating

5. Measures that can be taken to prevent wildfires

MARINE HEATWAVES

 

 

 

1. Context

 

For the second time in two years, a record-breaking heatwave is sweeping through Antarctica at the height of its winter season. Ground temperatures have been 10 degrees Celsius higher than normal on average since mid-July, and up to 28 degrees higher on certain days.

 

 

2. About marine heat waves

A marine heat wave is an extreme weather event. It occurs when the surface
temperature of a particular region of the sea rises to 3 or 4 degrees Celsius above the
average temperature for at least five days. MHWs can last for weeks, months or
even years. 

 

The impact of marine heat waves on ocean life

• Marine heatwaves (MHWs) have significant and often devastating impacts on ocean life. Despite seemingly minor temperature increases of 3 or 4 degrees Celsius, these events can have catastrophic consequences for marine ecosystems.
• For example, along the Western Australian coast in the summers of 2010 and 2011, MHWs resulted in devastating fish kills, where large numbers of fish and aquatic animals died suddenly and unexpectedly within a short period and were confined to specific areas.
• Moreover, studies have shown that MHWs can lead to the destruction of kelp forests, which play a crucial role in marine ecosystems by providing habitat and food for many marine animals. The increased water temperatures associated with MHWs are detrimental to kelp, which typically thrive in cooler waters.
• Another significant impact of MHWs is coral bleaching, as seen in the tropical Atlantic and Caribbean in 2005.
• During this event, high ocean temperatures caused more than 80 per cent of surveyed corals to bleach, with over 40 per cent ultimately dying.
• Coral bleaching occurs when corals expel the algae living in their tissues, turning them completely white. This phenomenon severely stresses corals, reducing their reproductive capacity and increasing their vulnerability to fatal diseases.
• Since many marine animals rely on coral reefs for survival, damage to corals threatens their existence as well.
• MHWs also contribute to the growth of invasive alien species, which can disrupt marine food webs.
• Additionally, these events force species to alter their behaviour in ways that increase their risk of harm.
• For instance, MHWs have been linked to incidents of whale entanglements in fishing gear, further highlighting the far-reaching consequences of these heatwaves on marine wildlife.

 

 

3. How do Marine Heat Waves Impact Humans?

• Marine heatwaves (MHWs) not only affect marine life but also have significant impacts on humans.
• As ocean temperatures rise during MHWs, storms such as hurricanes and tropical cyclones can become more intense.
• Warmer temperatures lead to increased evaporation and heat transfer from the oceans to the air.
• Consequently, storms travelling across warm oceans gather more water vapour and heat, resulting in stronger winds, heavier rainfall, and more flooding when these storms make landfall.
• This heightened intensity of storms can lead to devastating consequences for human communities in affected areas.
• Furthermore, coral reefs, which are adversely affected by MHWs, are not only essential for marine wildlife but also for human populations.
• According to NOAA, approximately half a billion people rely on reefs for food, income, and protection. When MHWs destroy coral reefs, these human populations are also significantly impacted, facing disruptions to their food sources, livelihoods, and coastal protection.
• The socio-economic impacts of MHWs extend to coastal communities as well. For instance, an MHW over the northwest Atlantic Ocean in 2012 caused marine species accustomed to warmer waters to migrate northward and alter their migration patterns earlier than usual.
• This shift affected fisheries targeting these species in the United States, resulting in economic losses and disruptions to local communities.
• As global temperatures continue to rise, MHWs are projected to become more frequent, intense, and prolonged, exacerbating their adverse effects on both marine ecosystems and human societies.

 

4. Global warming affecting marine heat waves and oceans

• Global warming, driven by the increase in greenhouse gas emissions, is profoundly affecting marine heatwaves (MHWs) and the overall health of oceans. Studies, including one published in the journal Nature in 2018 titled 'Marine heatwaves under global warming,' reveal alarming trends.
• Over recent decades, MHWs have become longer-lasting, more frequent, and more intense due to soaring global temperatures. Between 1982 and 2016, the study found a doubling in the number of MHW days, with projections indicating a further increase by a significant factor under various warming scenarios.
• Crucially, the study attributes 87 per cent of MHWs to human-induced warming, emphasizing the direct link between anthropogenic activities and the intensification of marine heatwaves. This intensification is exacerbated by the oceans' role in absorbing approximately 90 per cent of the additional heat generated by greenhouse gas emissions since the Industrial Revolution.
• As a result, global mean sea surface temperatures have risen by nearly 0.9 degrees Celsius since 1850, with a notable increase of around 0.6 degrees Celsius over the last four decades alone.
• With global air temperatures on the rise, ocean temperatures are also increasing, leading to the escalation of MHWs. Compounding this issue, the onset of El Nino conditions, characterized by abnormal warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, is further exacerbating heat extremes.
• Scientists warn that El Nino events are likely to intensify extreme heat events and could potentially break temperature records in various regions worldwide.
• The unprecedented impact of concurrent phenomena such as soaring global air and ocean temperatures, increased MHWs, and record-low Antarctic sea ice levels. The uncertainties regarding the future consequences of these trends, emphasise the urgent need for proactive measures to mitigate the escalating risks posed by climate change on marine ecosystems and human societies.

 

5. The Way Forward

 

Marine heatwaves are a serious threat to both marine ecosystems and human societies. Understanding the causes and consequences of MHWs is crucial for taking proactive measures to address climate change and protect our oceans and ourselves.

 

 

For Prelims: Marine Heatwaves, Coral Reefs, El Nino, Climate Change,  For Mains:  1. Explain the relationship between global warming and the increasing frequency and intensity of  Marine heat waves (MHWs). Assess the potential socio-economic and ecological repercussions of this phenomenon in the Arctic region. (250 words) 2.  Discuss the ethical implications of human activities contributing to Marine heat waves (MHWs) and the disproportionate impact they have on vulnerable coastal communities. (250 words) 3.  Imagine you are heading a national task force responsible for developing a comprehensive strategy to address Marine heat waves (MHWs). Outline your key priorities and action plan, taking into account scientific evidence, public participation, and sustainable solutions. (250 words)

 

 Source: The Indian Express

 

PYROCUMULONIMBUS CLOUDS

 

 

1. Context

 

The wildfires currently raging in the United States and Canada are so intense that they have created ‘pyrocumulonimbus’ clouds, which have the potential to spit out thunder and spark more fires

 

2.What is a Pyrocumulonimbus cloud?

 

• A pyrocumulonimbus cloud is a type of cloud associated with intense wildfire activity. It forms when a wildfire generates enough heat to create a strong updraft, which can lift smoke and other particulates high into the atmosphere. As the rising air cools, it condenses to form a cloud

• Not all wildfires result in the formation of pyrocumulonimbus clouds. These clouds typically develop only during exceptionally intense wildfires, though volcanic eruptions can also cause their formation. For example, during the Australian bushfires of 2019-2020, pyrocumulonimbus clouds emerged when temperatures exceeded 800 degrees Celsius.
• The extreme heat from the fire warms the surrounding air, causing it to rise into the atmosphere. As this hot, buoyant air—laden with water vapor, smoke, and ash—ascends, it expands and cools.
• When it reaches a sufficiently low temperature, the water vapor condenses around the ash, creating a grey or brown cloud known as a pyrocumulus or 'fire cloud.'
• If enough water vapor is present and the upward air movement strengthens, these clouds can develop into pyrocumulonimbus clouds, which can reach altitudes of up to 50,000 feet and generate their own thunderstorm systems.
• While pyrocumulonimbus clouds can produce lightning, they usually do not produce significant rainfall. This can lead to new wildfires starting far from the original blaze and may also generate strong winds that accelerate and complicate the spread of the wildfire

 

3. Frequent events of forming pyrocumulonimbus cloud

 

Pyrocumulonimbus cloud events are occurring more frequently due to several interrelated factors:

 

• Rising global temperatures contribute to more frequent and intense wildfires. Higher temperatures lead to drier conditions and more flammable vegetation, which can fuel larger and more intense fires that generate the necessary heat to form pyrocumulonimbus clouds
• Climate change is driving more extreme weather patterns, including hotter and drier conditions. These conditions are conducive to larger and more severe wildfires, increasing the likelihood of pyrocumulonimbus cloud formation
• Warmer temperatures and prolonged droughts are extending the fire season, allowing for more opportunities for pyrocumulonimbus clouds to develop. In some regions, fires are now burning year-round, rather than just during traditional fire seasons
• The size and duration of wildfires have increased, creating more sustained heat sources. This sustained heat can produce the intense updrafts necessary for the formation of pyrocumulonimbus clouds
• Changes in land use, such as deforestation and the expansion of agricultural lands, can alter the natural vegetation cover, making areas more susceptible to intense wildfires
•  Increased human activity and infrastructure development in wildfire-prone areas can lead to more frequent ignition sources and larger fires, which can contribute to the formation of pyrocumulonimbus clouds

 

4. Challenges with pyrocumulonimbus Clouds

 

Pyrocumulonimbus clouds pose several significant challenges, particularly in the context of wildfire management and environmental impact:

 

• Pyrocumulonimbus clouds can create their own weather systems, including strong winds and lightning, which can exacerbate existing wildfires and cause them to spread more rapidly and unpredictably
• The lightning generated by pyrocumulonimbus clouds can spark new wildfires many kilometers away from the original blaze, complicating firefighting efforts and increasing the area affected by fires
•  These clouds can produce severe weather conditions, including intense winds and localized thunderstorms. This can lead to dangerous situations for both firefighters and nearby communities, as well as contribute to further fire spread
• Pyrocumulonimbus clouds contribute to the release of large amounts of particulate matter, smoke, and pollutants into the atmosphere. This can severely degrade air quality over large areas, affecting human health and the environment
• The complex interactions between the heat generated by the fire and atmospheric conditions can make the behavior of pyrocumulonimbus clouds highly unpredictable. This unpredictability complicates forecasting and planning for fire management
• The ash and smoke from these clouds can have a short-term cooling effect on the atmosphere but may contribute to longer-term climate changes. Additionally, the particles can affect weather patterns and precipitation
• The intense heat and high winds associated with pyrocumulonimbus clouds can cause significant damage to infrastructure, including power lines, buildings, and transportation networks

5. Way forward

 

The precise cause is still uncertain because, unlike other extreme weather events, research on pyrocumulonimbus clouds is relatively recent. Nonetheless, scientists suspect that climate change may be contributing to their increased frequency.

Research indicates that rising global temperatures are leading to more frequent and severe wildfires, which might be driving up the occurrence of pyrocumulonimbus clouds

 

 

 

For Prelims: Cumulonimbus clouds, pyrocumulonimbus clouds For Mains: GS I - World Geography

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

NATIONAL FLAG DAY ADOPTION DAY

 

 

 

1. Context

Our #NationalFlag symbolizes pride and must always be hoisted high. The National Flag must not be flown at half-mast except on occasions instructed by the Government of India

 

2. History of National flag day adoption

• National Flag Adoption Day in India is celebrated on July 22 every year. It commemorates the adoption of the Indian tricolour as the national flag of India on July 22, 1947, a month before the country's independence from British rule.
• The flag was designed by Pingali Venkayya, a freedom fighter and social reformer. It is a horizontal tricolour of saffron, white, and green, with a navy blue Ashoka Chakra in the centre of the white band.
• The saffron represents courage and sacrifice, the white represents peace and purity, and the green represents faith and prosperity. The Ashoka Chakra represents the wheel of law and dharma.
• The flag is a symbol of national pride and unity for Indians all over the world. It is flown on all government buildings and institutions, and it is also flown by citizens on special occasions.

 

3. Significance of National flag day adoption

On National Flag Adoption Day, people across India celebrate the flag and its significance. There are flag hoisting ceremonies, cultural events, and educational programs to teach people about the flag and its history.

National Flag Adoption Day is a day to reflect on the values that the flag represents, and to reaffirm our commitment to building a strong and united India.

Here are some of the ways to celebrate National Flag Adoption Day:

• Hoist the flag at your home or workplace.
• Attend a flag hoisting ceremony in your community.
• Learn about the history of the flag.
• Teach your children about the flag and its significance.
• Participate in a cultural event or educational program about the flag.
• Display the flag in your home or workplace.
• Respect the flag and treat it with dignity.

4. Constitutional debates 

• The Constituent Assembly Debates on  July 22, 1947 in which 24 members from Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Dalit and Adivasi backgrounds spoke on the resolution moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on the National Flag, crystalizes the meaning of the flag for all Indians.

The resolution itself in Nehru’s words was a ‘technical resolution’ with no ‘glow or warmth in the words’. It read: 

"Resolved that the National Flag of India shall be horizontal tricolour of deep Saffron (Kesari), white and dark green in equal proportion. In the centre of the white band, there shall be a Wheel in navy blue to represent the Charkha. The design of the Wheel shall be that of the Wheel. (Chakra) which appears on the abacuse(sic) of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Asoka. The diameter of the Wheel shall approximate to the width of the white band. The ratio of the width to the length of the Flag shall ordinarily be 2:3"

• In moving the resolution, Nehru narrates the ‘history’ behind the adoption of the flag in a speech which Sarojini Naidu described as ‘epic in its quality of beauty, dignity and appropriateness’ and ‘sufficient to express the aspirations, emotions and the ideals of this House’.
• The flag, according to Nehru, was a symbol of the freedom struggle waged by Indians against British rule.
• The struggle itself was the ‘concentrated history of a short span in a nation’s existence’, of a ‘brief period we pass through the track of centuries’, he says

• The flag draws its inspiration from the past, from the ‘trackless centuries’ before the freedom struggle. 
• The ‘chakra emblem’ is associated with Ashoka, ‘one of the most magnificent names not only in India’s history but in world history.’
• For Nehru,  to go back to Ashoka ‘at this moment of strife, conflict and intolerance’ is to ‘go back towards what India stood for in the ancient days..’

Source: pib