• The Model Code of Conduct (MCC) is a set of guidelines issued by the Election Commission of India (ECI) for political parties and candidates during elections.
• The MCC is designed to ensure free and fair elections by preventing the misuse of government machinery, maintaining a level playing field for all candidates, and avoiding any activities that could unduly influence voters.
• The Election Commission describes the Model Code of Conduct as a set of norms and rules that political parties and candidates must adhere to during the election process.
• The MCC comes into effect as soon as the election dates are announced and remains in force until the results are declared.
• It includes guidelines on various aspects of electioneering, such as campaigning, speeches, processions, polling day activities, and the content of election manifestos.
• The goal is to promote a fair and ethical electoral process, minimizing the chances of corrupt practices and ensuring that the democratic principles are upheld during elections

3.What is the Model Code of Conduct?

• The Model Code of Conduct, issued by the Election Commission, serves as a set of guidelines to oversee the conduct of political parties and candidates before elections.
• These guidelines encompass various aspects such as speeches, polling day procedures, polling booths, ministerial portfolios, election manifesto content, processions, and overall behavior. The aim is to ensure the integrity of elections.
• According to information from the Press Information Bureau, a version of the MCC was initially introduced during the 1960 state assembly elections in Kerala.
• It gained widespread adherence in the 1962 elections and has been consistently followed in subsequent general elections. In October 1979, the Election Commission expanded the MCC to include a section regulating the conduct of the 'party in power' to prevent any undue advantage during elections.
• The MCC is activated from the announcement of the election schedule until the declaration of results. Consequently, it comes into effect from the present evening and remains applicable until the conclusion of the entire election process.
• The MCC comprises eight provisions addressing general conduct, meetings, processions, polling day, polling booths, observers, the party in power, and election manifestos

4.When does the Model Code of Conduct come into effect?

• Once the code comes into effect, the governing party, whether at the national or state level, must ensure that its official position is not exploited for campaign purposes.
• Consequently, no policies, projects, or schemes should be announced that could sway voting behavior. The party is also prohibited from utilizing public funds for advertising or using official media platforms to publicize achievements with the intention of enhancing electoral prospects.
• The guidelines further dictate that ministers should refrain from combining official visits with election-related activities or utilizing official resources for such purposes.
• The ruling party is barred from employing government transportation or machinery for campaign activities. Additionally, it is mandated to provide opposition parties with equal access to public spaces like grounds for conducting election meetings, as well as amenities such as helipads, under the same terms and conditions applied to the ruling party.
• Any advertisements at the expense of the public treasury in newspapers and other media outlets are considered an offense. The ruling government is also restricted from making ad-hoc appointments in governmental bodies and public enterprises that may unduly influence voters.
• The Model Code of Conduct strictly prohibits the use of caste and communal sentiments to attract voters, allowing criticism of political parties or candidates solely based on their track record. Places of worship, including mosques, churches, and temples, are not to be employed for election propaganda.
• Practices such as bribery, intimidation, and voter impersonation are explicitly forbidden. Public meetings within the 48-hour period leading up to the poll closing time are also proscribed, known as the "election silence," aiming to provide voters with a campaign-free environment for reflection before casting their votes

5.Is the Model Code of Conduct legally binding?

• The Model Code of Conduct (MCC) is not a legally binding document in the sense that it is not enforceable by law. It is a set of guidelines and ethical standards issued by election management bodies, such as the Election Commission of India, to ensure fair play and ethical behavior during elections.
• The MCC is followed by political parties and candidates on a voluntary basis, and adherence is more a matter of political ethics and a commitment to maintaining the integrity of the electoral process.
• While the MCC itself does not have statutory backing, certain aspects of it may be supported by legal provisions. For example, if a political party or candidate violates specific principles outlined in the MCC, they may be subject to legal action under relevant electoral laws. However, the MCC, as a whole, is more of a moral and ethical code that relies on the cooperation and voluntary compliance of political participants.
• The Election Commission, as the custodian of the MCC, can take various actions against those who violate its principles.
• These actions may include issuing warnings, reprimands, and, in severe cases, canceling candidature or disqualification. The idea behind the MCC is to foster a fair and transparent electoral process and to prevent the misuse of power during election campaigns

6. Way forward

The ECI can issue a notice to a politician or a party for alleged breach of the MCC either on its own or on the basis of a complaint by another party or individual. Once a notice is issued, the person or party must reply in writing — either accepting fault and tendering an unconditional apology or rebutting the allegation. In the latter case, if the person or party is found guilty subsequently, he/it can attract a written censure from the ECI — something that many see as a mere slap on the wrist

Source: Indianexpress

CYCLONES

• A cyclone is a low-pressure system that forms over warm waters. Essentially, it is a system of high-speed winds rotating around a low-pressure area, with the winds blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
• According to the World Meteorological Organization, “Tropical cyclones are one of the biggest threats to life and property even in the formative stages of their development.
• Cyclonic winds move across nearly all regions of the Earth except the equatorial belt and are generally associated with rain or snow
• They include several different hazards that can individually cause significant impacts on life and property, such as storm surge, flooding, extreme winds, tornadoes and lighting.
• Combined, these hazards interact with one another and substantially increase the potential for loss of life and material damage.”
• Cyclones occur chiefly in the middle and high latitude belts of both hemispheres. In the Southern Hemisphere, where most of the terrestrial surface is covered by the oceans, cyclones are distributed in a relatively uniform manner through various longitudes
• Characteristically, they form in latitudes 30° to 40° S and move in a generally southeasterly direction, reaching maturity in latitudes around 60°. 
• Cyclones that form closer to the Equator (i.e., at latitudes 10° to 25° north and south over the oceans) differ somewhat in character from the extratropical variety. Such wind systems, known as tropical cyclones, are much smaller in diameter. 
• Whereas extratropical cyclones range from nearly 1,000 to 4,000 km (620 to 2,500 miles) across, tropical cyclones typically measure only about 100 to over 1,000 km in diameter.

4. How are cyclones named?

Cyclones that form in every ocean basin across the world are named by the regional specialised meteorological centres (RSMCs) and Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres (TCWCs). There are six RSMCs in the world, including the India Meteorological Department (IMD), and five TCWCs.

As an RSMC, the IMD names the cyclones developing over the north Indian Ocean, including the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, after following a standard procedure. The IMD is also mandated to issue advisories to 12 other countries in the region on the development of cyclones and storms.

 

 

For Prelims:  Indian and World Geography-Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India and the World For Mains: General Studies I: Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc., geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2020) 1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only. 2. Only some cyclones develop an eye. 3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10°C lesser than that of the surroundings. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 Only B. 2 and 3 Only C. 2 Only D. 1 and 3 Only Answer (C) 2.In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclones do not originate. What is the reason? (UPSC Prelims GS1, 2015) (a) Sea surface temperatures are low (b) Inter-tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs (c) Coriolis force is too weak (d) Absence of land in those regions Answer (a)   1.Tropical cyclones are largely confined to South China Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why? (GS-1, 2014) 2.The recent cyclone on the east coast of India was called “Phailin”. How are the tropical cyclones named across the world? (GS-1, 2013)

Source: indianexpress

 

FREE TRADE AGREEMENT 

1. Context

Faced with tough negotiators from the United Kingdom (UK) and the European Union (EU), the Commerce and Industry Ministry has started looking at ways to strengthen India’s negotiating capabilities. Among other things, this exercise is likely to focus on plugging loopholes that emanate due to the loss of institutional memory on account of the routine transfer of key civil servants steering extended trade negotiations

 

2. About the Free Trade Agreement

• A Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is an agreement between two or more countries to reduce or eliminate barriers to trade, such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies.
• FTAs can also include provisions on other issues, such as investment, intellectual property, and labour standards.
• The goal of an FTA is to promote trade and economic growth between the signatory countries.
• By reducing or eliminating trade barriers, FTAs can make it easier for businesses to export their goods and services to other countries, which can lead to increased production, employment, and innovation.

3. Types of Free Trade Agreement

• Bilateral Free Trade Agreement (BFTA) involves two countries, aiming to promote trade and eliminate tariffs on goods and services between them.  It establishes a direct trade relationship, allowing for a more focused and tailored agreement between the two nations.
• Multilateral Free Trade Agreement (MFTA) Involving three or more countries, an MFTA seeks to create a comprehensive trade bloc, promoting economic integration on a larger scale. It requires coordination among multiple parties, addressing diverse economic interests and fostering a broader regional economic landscape.
• Regional Free Trade Agreement (RFTA) involves countries within a specific geographic region, aiming to enhance economic cooperation and integration within that particular area. It focuses on addressing regional economic challenges and fostering collaboration among neighbouring nations.
• Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) involves a reciprocal reduction of tariffs and trade barriers between participating countries, granting preferential treatment to each other's goods and services. It allows countries to enjoy trading advantages with specific partners while maintaining autonomy in their trade policies with non-participating nations.
• Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) is a broad and advanced form of FTA that goes beyond traditional trade barriers, encompassing various economic aspects such as investment, intellectual property, and services. It aims for a more comprehensive economic partnership, encouraging deeper integration and collaboration between participating countries.
• Customs Union While not strictly an FTA, a Customs Union involves the elimination of tariffs among member countries and the establishment of a common external tariff against non-member nations. It goes beyond standard FTAs by harmonizing external trade policies, creating a unified approach to trade with the rest of the world.
• Free Trade Area (FTA) with Trade in Goods (TIG) and Trade in Services (TIS): Some FTAs specifically emphasize either trade in goods or trade in services, tailoring the agreement to the specific economic strengths and priorities of the participating countries. This approach allows nations to focus on areas where they have a comparative advantage, fostering specialization and efficiency.

4. India's Free Trade Agreements

India is a member of several free trade agreements (FTAs) and is currently negotiating others.  India's FTAs have helped to reduce trade barriers and promote trade and economic growth. They have also helped to attract foreign investment and create jobs. 

• The South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) was signed in 1995 by the seven countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). SAFTA aims to reduce or eliminate tariffs on trade between the member countries.
• The India-Bangladesh FTA was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
• The India-Sri Lanka FTA was signed in 1999 and came into force in 2000. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
• The India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2002 and came into force in 2010. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
• The India-Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
• The India-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement(CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2023. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
• The India-UAE Comprehensive Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
• The India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.

• The India-Malaysia Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) was signed in 2010 and aims to enhance economic ties by addressing trade in goods and services, as well as investment and other areas of economic cooperation.
• The India-Thailand Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2003 and focuses on reducing tariffs and promoting trade in goods and services between India and Thailand.
• The India-Singapore Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) has been operational since 2005, this agreement covers trade in goods and services, as well as investment and intellectual property.
• The India-Nepal Trade Treaty While not a comprehensive FTA, India and Nepal have a trade treaty that facilitates the exchange of goods between the two countries.
• The India-Chile Preferential Trade Agreement was signed in 2006 and aims to enhance economic cooperation and reduce tariffs on certain products traded between India and Chile.

5.  India - UK Free Trade Agreement

5.1. Background

• Both countries have agreed to avoid sensitive issues in the negotiations.
• The interim (early harvest agreement) aims to achieve up to 65 per cent coverage for goods and up to 40 per cent coverage for services.
• By the time the final agreement is inked, the coverage for goods is expected to go up to "90 plus a percentage" of goods.
• India is also negotiating a similar early harvest agreement with Australia, which is supposed to set the stage for a long-pending Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement that both countries have been pursuing for nearly a decade.
• While the commencement of negotiations does mark a step forward in the otherwise rigid stance adopted and when it comes to trade liberalisation, experts point to impediments and the potential for legal challenges going ahead.

5.2. GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs)

• The exception to the rule is full-scale FTAs, subject to some conditions.
• One rider, incorporated in Article XXIV.8 (b) of GATT, stipulates that a deal should aim to eliminate customs duties and other trade barriers on "Substantially all the trade" between the WTO member countries that are signatories to an FTA.
• For this Agreement, a free-trade area shall be understood to mean a group of two or more customs territories in which the duties and other restrictive regulations of commerce are eliminated on substantially all the trade between the constituent territories in products originating in such territories.
• It is often beneficial to negotiate the entire deal together, as an early harvest deal may reduce the incentive for one side to work towards a full FTA.
• These agreements are not just about goods and services but also issues like investment.
• If you are trying to weigh the costs and benefits, it is always better to have the larger picture in front of you.
• In the case of the early harvest agreement inked with Thailand, automobile industry associations had complained that relaxations extended to Bangkok in the early harvest had reduced the incentive for Thailand to work towards a full FTA.
• Early harvest agreements may serve the function of keeping trading partners interested as they promise some benefits without long delays, as India becomes known for long-drawn negotiations for FTAs.
• Government emphasis on interim agreements may be tactical so that a deal may be achieved with minimum commitments and would allow for contentious issues to be resolved later.

 

For Prelims: Free Trade Agreement, India-U.K, Bilateral Free Trade Agreement, G-20 Summit, Agenda 2030, Covid-19 Pandemic, SAARC, General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, Multilateral Free Trade Agreement, Regional Free Trade Agreement, Preferential Trade Agreement, Customs Union,  For Mains:  1. Evaluate the potential impact of the India-UK FTA on the Indian economy, considering both positive and negative aspects (250 Words) 2. Critically evaluate the significance of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) in promoting trade and economic growth, considering their potential benefits and drawbacks. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following countries: 1. Australia 2. Canada 3. China 4. India 5. Japan 6. USA Which of the above are among the free-trade partners' of ASEAN? (UPSC 2018) A. 1, 2, 4 and 5          B.  3, 4, 5 and 6      C.  1, 3, 4 and 5       D.  2, 3, 4 and 6   Answer: C   2. Increase in absolute and per capita real GNP do not connote a higher level of economic development, if (UPSC 2018) (a) Industrial output fails to keep pace with agricultural output. (b) Agricultural output fails to keep pace with industrial output. (c) Poverty and unemployment increase. (d) Imports grow faster than exports. Answer: C 3. The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following: (2010) Development of infrastructure facilities. Promotion of investment from foreign sources. Promotion of exports of services only. Which of the above are the objectives of this Act? (a) 1 and 2 only     (b) 3 only         (c) 2 and 3 only           (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A 4. A “closed economy” is an economy in which (UPSC 2011) (a) the money supply is fully controlled (b) deficit financing takes place (c) only exports take place (d) neither exports nor imports take place Answer: D 5. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club. 2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only         (b) 2 only            (c) Both 1 and 2          (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: C

 

 Source: The Hindu

ANTARCTIC TREATY

 

 

1. Context

 

The 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM), or the Antarctic Parliament, is underway in Kochi, Kerala, India. It began on May 20 and is scheduled to conclude on May 30, 2024. A major focus of the meeting is the rise of tourism in Antarctica and its potential impacts. Representatives from all 56 member countries of the Antarctic Treaty are attending the ATCM. 

 

2. Tussle over Territory in Antarctica

 

• Parts of mainland Antarctica were first spotted by British, American, and Russian ships in the 1820s, but the region did not receive significant attention until the early 20th century, according to KM Shusterich's 1984 article, "The Antarctic Treaty System: History, Substance, and Speculation," published by the International Journal (IJ).
• This shift in focus coincided with the heated competition to reach the South Pole between Captain Robert Scott from the United Kingdom and Roald Amundsen from Norway. Amundsen emerged victorious, becoming the first person to reach the South Pole on December 15, 1911.
• By the 1950s, seven countries Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK had made formal territorial claims over Antarctica. However, these claims overlapped in some areas, leading to potential conflicts. The United States, the Soviet Union, Belgium, Japan, and South Africa also explored the continent but did not make any territorial claims.
• Only five claimants (Australia, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom) mutually recognised each other's claims. Of particular concern were the claims of Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom."
• Between 1947 and 1955, Argentina and Chile twice rejected the British proposal to settle their overlapping claims through the International Court of Justice (ICJ).
• Both nations insisted that their sovereignty was unquestionable and that no third power could judge their domestic territorial claims. 
• These disputes led to several attempts to establish an international agreement on the control of Antarctica.

3. The International Geophysical Year and the Birth of the Antarctic Treaty

 

• During the 1957-58 International Geophysical Year (IGY), when 12 countries Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, the United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union, Belgium, Japan, and South Africa agreed not to let their political and legal differences impede scientific research in Antarctica.
• They also allowed countries operating in Antarctica to establish their scientific stations anywhere on the continent, irrespective of territorial claims.
• The success of the IGY generated momentum for an international agreement concerning Antarctica.
• On May 2, 1958, the United States proposed that other IGY participant countries join in drafting a treaty to preserve the continent as an international laboratory for scientific research and to ensure it would be used only for peaceful purposes, according to Shusterich. The nations were invited to Washington, DC, to negotiate this treaty.
• The Conference on Antarctica took place from October 15 to December 1, 1959, resulting in the Antarctic Treaty.
• This agreement emerged during the Cold War, a period of intense rivalry between the US and the Soviet Union (1947-1991).
• Both countries agreed to sign the treaty, concerned that their rivalry might extend to Antarctica. Given the absence of them having made a territorial claim, they were prepared to continue to engage in Antarctic affairs for scientific purposes. 
• The Antarctic Treaty, signed by all 12 IGY participants, came into force in 1961. It contained 14 articles and froze territorial disputes over Antarctica.
• Its key provisions included prohibiting new territorial claims, banning militarization and nuclear testing, and promoting scientific research.
• Currently, 56 countries are part of the treaty. Among them, 29, including all 12 original signatories, are 'Consultative Parties' involved in the decision-making process. India, which joined the treaty in 1983, is also a Consultative Party.

 

4. Major Provisions of the Antarctic Treaty

 

• The treaty promotes the freedom of scientific research in Antarctica, allowing countries to conduct research activities without hindrance.
• Countries are mandated to use the continent solely for peaceful purposes, prohibiting any military activities, nuclear tests, or the disposal of radioactive waste.
• The treaty neutralizes territorial sovereignty, imposing limits on making new claims or expanding existing ones. It freezes disputes between claimants over their territories on the continent.

Dispute Resolution Mechanisms

• Overlapping territorial claims, such as those between Argentina and the UK, have led to tensions. However, the treaty's ability to evolve through additional conventions and legal protocols has facilitated resolution.
• Disputes are addressed through the expansion of the treaty framework, which includes agreements on marine conservation, mining prohibitions, and comprehensive environmental protection mechanisms.

Antarctic Treaty System

• The Antarctic Treaty System encompasses all arrangements regulating relations among states in Antarctica. Its primary goal is to ensure the continent is used exclusively for peaceful purposes and remains free from international discord.
• Spanning over 50 years, the Antarctic Treaty System stands as a hallmark of international cooperation, tailored to the unique geographical, environmental, and political characteristics of the Antarctic region.
• Major international agreements within the system, such as the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, the 1972 Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, the 1980 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, and the 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, are legally binding and establish a robust governance framework for the region.

 

5. Reasons Behind the Treaty’s Success

 

• The Antarctic Treaty has endured over the years due to its balance between specificity and vagueness.
• The treaty promotes compromise rather than conflict; it instils a sense of exclusivity for the consultative parties, yet invites all nations to join.
• The treaty states that 'it is in the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes.
• Another key to its success is the treaty's ability to evolve and address new challenges over time. Several additional conventions and legal protocols have been implemented to tackle issues like marine conservation, the prohibition of mining, and the protection of Antarctica’s environment.
• Despite resolving many issues, the treaty faces significant challenges ahead.
• Climate change is the biggest threat, with the continent experiencing record-breaking high temperatures and its ice coverage reaching its lowest levels last year since record-keeping began. The recent increase in tourism-related activities also raises concerns.
• It illustrates the bigger challenge have as a civilization and that’s understanding the concept of time Most of the decision-making is done in an electoral cycle, but the types of problems that need to be addressed and solved as a civilization require that look decades even centuries into the future.

 

6. Indian Antarctic Programme

 

The Indian Antarctic Programme (IAP) is a dedicated scientific research and exploration initiative in Antarctica, spearheaded by the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR). Established in 1981, the program marked a significant milestone with the launch of India's first Antarctic expedition.

NCPOR

The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) serves as the central agency for the IAP. Established in 1998, NCPOR shoulders the responsibility of planning, promoting, coordinating, and executing all facets of polar and Southern Ocean scientific research within India. This includes associated logistical activities crucial for successful research missions.

India's Antarctic Outposts

India has established a network of research stations in Antarctica to facilitate scientific endeavours.

• Dakshin Gangotri is a pioneering Indian scientific research station, built as part of the IAP's initial efforts, and served as the first base camp. However, due to harsh conditions, it currently functions primarily as a supply base.
• Maitri was Commissioned in 1989, Maitri stands as India's second permanent research station in Antarctica. Located amidst the Schirmacher Oasis, a rocky mountainous region, Maitri offers a stable research environment. Notably, India constructed a freshwater lake named Lake Priyadarshini near Maitri.
• Bharti was Established in 2012, Bharti represents India's newest research station. This state-of-the-art facility prioritizes researcher safety amidst the formidable Antarctic weather. Notably, Bharti is India's first dedicated research facility and is situated approximately 3,000 kilometres east of Maitri.

Expanding Research Capabilities

India's commitment to Antarctic research extends beyond its research stations:

• Sagar Nidhi Unveiled in 2008, Sagar Nidhi is a specialized ice-class vessel built for research purposes. This remarkable ship possesses the capability to navigate through Antarctic waters, even cutting through thin ice layers up to 40 centimetres deep. Notably, Sagar Nidhi holds the distinction of being the first Indian vessel to conquer the challenges of Antarctic waters.

 

7. Way Forward

 

The success of the Antarctic Treaty demonstrates the power of international cooperation in managing a shared global resource. By fostering dialogue, prioritizing science, and adapting to new challenges, the member countries can ensure a peaceful and sustainable future for Antarctica.

 

For Prelims:  Antarctic Treaty,  International Geophysical Year, Climate Change For Mains:  1. Explain the scientific significance of Antarctica and the role of international collaboration in researching the continent. How can India, as a Consultative Party to the Antarctic Treaty, contribute further to scientific exploration in Antarctica? (250 words)

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Comprehension A passage is given with five questions following it. Read the passage carefully and select the best answer to each question out of the given four alternatives. Antarctica is a mostly unpopulated continent. It is the coldest, driest and most remote place in the world. It is the world's only continent that does not have a native population. No single country owns the Antarctic. However, a number of countries, including Argentina, Australia, Chile, New Zealand, France and the United Kingdom, have already laid claim to the Antarctic and others will probably follow. In some areas of the continent, two countries claim the same land. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 and creates the rules for the exploration of the Antarctic. The treaty forbids military activity in the Antarctic, as well as mining. Many countries, however, think that there are valuable materials and minerals locked up under the frozen Antarctic ice. In addition, the treaty bans nuclear testing as well as dumping nuclear waste. The Antarctic Treaty was made to protect the continent and avoid further disputes. By 2048, the treaty must be renewed. New rules and regulations could be imposed by then. Currently, almost all of the 70 bases in the Antarctic are used for research and scientific activity. The snow-covered continent is perfect for tracking satellites and space research because it offers clear blue, cloudless skies. Climatologists are studying the development of the ozone layer with growing concern. It was here that a hole in the layer was discovered for the first time. More than 4000scientists operate the research stations in the Antarctic summer, while only about a thousand populate the continent during the harsh and severe winters. Environmentalists fear that exploiting Antarctica for military and economic reasons will damage the environment. At present, there is no economic activity in Antarctica, except for cruise ships that travel around the continent. This could change if a new treaty allows mining in the Antarctic. As mineral resources are dwindling in other areas, nations could turn to Antarctica to find and exploit valuable raw materials. Some geologists say that there are over 200 billion barrels of oil under the Antarctic ice. At the moment getting at these reserves would be very expensive. In addition, economic experts claim that there are large amounts of coal, nickel and copper under the Antarctic ice. Why was Antarctic Treaty signed? (SSC CPO Tier- I 2017)  A. to protect the continent B. to ban dumping of nuclear waste C. to create rules for its exploration D. All of these.   2. With reference to the water on the planet Earth, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021) 1. The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is more than the amount of groundwater. 2. The amount of water in polar ice caps and glaciers is more than the amount of groundwater. Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?  A. 1 only   B. 2 only     C. Both 1 and 2    D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answers: 1-D, 2-B

 

Source: The Indian Express

OBC QUOTA FOR MUSLIMS

 

 

1.  Context

 

 

Recently, The Calcutta High Court has overturned a decision by the West Bengal government. The ruling applies to a series of orders issued between March 2010 and May 2012. These orders granted reservations under the Other Backward Classes (OBC) category to 77 communities (classifications). It's important to note that 75 of these communities identified as Muslim.

 

 

2. OBC Reservations in West Bengal

 

Government Orders

• Between March 5 and September 24, 2010, the West Bengal government issued notifications classifying 42 communities, of which 41 were Muslim, as OBCs, granting them reservation benefits.
• Additionally, on September 24, 2010, an order further categorized the existing 108 OBCs (66 pre-existing and 42 newly identified) into two sub-categories: OBC-A (more backward) and OBC-B (backward).

Legal Challenges

• The first challenge was filed in 2011 against the classification of 42 communities as OBCs. The argument centred around religion being the sole criterion and the lack of proper data or a scientific survey to support the classification.
• In May 2012, the Mamata Banerjee government included another 35 communities, with 34 being Muslim, in the OBC category. This decision was also challenged in the High Court.

Legislative Action

• In March 2013, the West Bengal government enacted the West Bengal Backward Classes (Other than Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) (Reservation of vacancies and posts) Act, 2012. This act incorporated all 77 newly classified OBC communities (42+35) into Schedule I. Two petitions challenged the Act itself.

 

3. Basis of Reservations

 

In its judgment, the High Court referenced the Supreme Court's ruling in the landmark case of Indra Sawhney v Union of India (Mandal judgment), a pivotal case concerning reservations.

• The High Court heavily relied on the 1992 judgment by a nine-judge Bench, which stipulated that Other Backward Classes (OBCs) cannot be identified and granted reservation solely based on religion. It also mandated the establishment of Backward Classes Commissions by all states to identify and recommend eligible classes for inclusion or exclusion from the state's OBC list.
• Both the Commission and the government asserted that the 77 identified classes were recommended based on applications received from citizens, followed by the Commission's recommendation to the government.
• The High Court observed that the Commission's recommendation was swiftly made after the Chief Minister publicly announced a quota for Muslims in February 2010. There were no objective criteria used to assess the backwardness of these classes.
• The Court concluded that religion appeared to be the sole criterion for designating these communities as OBCs. The reports submitted by the Commission seemed to mask these religion-specific recommendations.
• The High Court expressed scepticism, suggesting that the identification of the 77 classes might have been politically motivated. It implied that these classes were being treated as a "vote bank" for political gain rather than genuine social welfare considerations.

4. Sub-classification of OBCs

The Calcutta High Court's decision extended beyond the classification of the 77 communities. The court also struck down specific provisions within the West Bengal Backward Classes (Other than Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) (Reservation of vacancies and posts) Act, 2012.

Key Provisions Struck Down

• The act allowed the state government to categorize OBC reservations into OBC-A ("more backward") and OBC-B ("backward") categories. The court rejected this provision.
• The act allowed the state to modify the Schedule listing OBC communities. This provision was also struck down.

Reasoning Behind the Court's Decision

• The West Bengal Backward Classes Commission argued that consulting the government before creating the sub-classification wasn't within its purview. However, the court emphasized the necessity of state government consultation with the Commission to ensure a fair and impartial classification process, including sub-classification.
• The court highlighted the importance of utilizing data collected by the Commission to determine the different levels of deprivation faced by various communities. Sub-classification, as envisioned by the court, should be based on this data to effectively address varying needs.

 

5. Way Forward

 

By implementing the steps, West Bengal can work towards a more robust and equitable OBC reservation system that effectively addresses social inequalities without compromising on legal principles. The ultimate goal should be to uplift truly backward communities, irrespective of religion, and ensure a level playing field for all citizens.

 

 

For Prelims: OBC reservations, West Bengal Backward Classes (Other than Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) (Reservation of vacancies and posts) Act, 2012, Indra Sawhney v Union of India For Mains:  1. The concept of social backwardness is central to the justification of reservation policies in India. Discuss the challenges in identifying and measuring social backwardness objectively, and suggest ways to ensure a more inclusive and equitable reservation system. (250 words) 2. The concept of reservations in India has been a topic of ongoing debate.  In light of the West Bengal case, critically evaluate the role of reservations in achieving social justice in India.  (250 words)

 

Previous Year Questions 1. Consider the following organizations/bodies in India: (UPSC 2023) 1. The National Commission for Backward Classes 2. The National Human Rights Commission 3. The National Law Commission 4. The National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission How many of the above constitutional bodies? (a) Only one   (b) Only two   (c) Only three   (d) All four 2. The First Backward Classes Commission was chaired by: (Dehli Police Constable 2020) (TNPSC Group 1) A. V.P. Singh     B. PG Shah        C. Kaka Kalelkar       D. Anup Singh Answers: 1-A, 2-C

 

 

Source: The Indian Express

EL NINO AND LA NINA

 

 

1. Context

India Meteorological Department (IMD) forecast above-normal rain in the upcoming monsoon season in India, with “favourable” La Nina conditions expected to set in by August-September. Another recent bulletin from the IMD noted how the strength of El Niño conditions has weakened since the beginning of this year.

 

2.What are El Niño and La Nina?

 

• El Niño and La Niña, translating to “little boy” and “little girl” in Spanish, are climatic events arising from interactions between the ocean and atmosphere. They influence water temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, thereby affecting global weather patterns.
• The Earth's rotation from east to west causes winds between 30 degrees north and south of the equator to tilt in their paths. This results in winds flowing southwest in the northern hemisphere and northwest in the southern hemisphere, a phenomenon known as the Coriolis Effect.
• Consequently, trade winds blow westward on either side of the equator. Typically, these winds move west from South America towards Asia, leading to upwelling, where cold water from beneath the ocean surface rises, replacing warmer surface waters.
• Occasionally, weakened trade winds shift back towards South America, preventing upwelling. This leads to warmer-than-normal sea surface temperatures along the equatorial Pacific Ocean, marking the onset of El Niño conditions.
• In contrast, during La Niña, stronger trade winds push warm water towards Asia, enhancing upwelling and bringing cold, nutrient-rich water to South America.
• Thus, El Niño and La Niña represent opposite phases of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle, which also includes a neutral phase.
• El Niño events are more common than La Niña ones, occurring every two to seven years when neutral ENSO conditions are disrupted by either phase. Recently, La Niña conditions were observed from 2020 to 2023

3.How could the incoming La Nina impact global weather?

 

• Due to ENSO and the associated changes in ocean temperatures, air circulation in the region is also influenced. This, in turn, affects precipitation levels in nearby areas and has an impact on the Indian monsoon.
• The current El Niño event, which started last June, has weakened considerably. It is anticipated that by June, neutral ENSO conditions will be in place. Following this, La Niña conditions are expected to develop, potentially starting to have an impact by August

4.La Nina’s impact on the world

• Like India, countries such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and their neighbors experience abundant rainfall during a La Niña year. This year, Indonesia has already experienced flooding.
• Conversely, droughts are common in the southern parts of North America, where winters tend to be warmer than usual.
• Canada and the northwestern coast of the United States face heavy rainfall and flooding. Southern Africa experiences above-average rainfall, while the eastern regions of the continent receive below-average rainfall.
• ENSO significantly influences hurricane activity over the Atlantic Ocean, with La Niña years typically seeing an increase in hurricanes. For example, in the La Niña year of 2021, the Atlantic Ocean saw a record 30 hurricanes

5.Is climate change affecting ENSO?

• In India, El Niño is known to reduce southwest monsoon rainfall, leading to higher temperatures and more intense heatwaves, as seen this summer.
• Historically, monsoon seasons following an El Niño, such as in 1982-1983 and 1987-1988, saw abundant rainfall in 1983 and 1988. A similar pattern may occur this year.
• From 2020 to 2023, the longest La Niña event of the century took place. This was followed by ENSO neutral conditions, which transitioned to El Niño by June 2023.
• However, El Niño has been weakening since last December. According to Rajeevan, this rapid shift to La Niña is a natural occurrence and has happened many times in the past.
• Scientists suggest that climate change will impact the ENSO cycle. Various studies indicate that global warming may alter the average oceanic conditions in the Pacific Ocean, leading to more frequent El Niño events.
• The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) also predicts that climate change will likely affect the intensity and frequency of extreme weather and climate events associated with El Niño and La Niña

 

 

 

Source: Indianexpress