KYOTO PROTOCOL
1. Context
2023 was the warmest year since records began in 1850, beating the previous record of 2016, Europe’s Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) . The announcement said temperatures in 2023 likely exceeded those of any year-long period in at least the last 100,000 years
2. What is Kyoto Protocol?
- The Kyoto Protocol was an international agreement that aimed to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and the presence of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere.
- The essential tenet of the Kyoto Protocol was that industrialized nations needed to lessen the amount of their CO2 emissions.
- The protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, when greenhouse gases were rapidly threatening our climate, life on the earth, and the planet.
-
Other agreements like the Doha Amendment and Paris Climate Agreement address global warming.
-
Ongoing talks in 2021 with complex issues of politics, money, and lack of consensus.
-
U.S. withdrew from the agreement, citing unfair mandates and economic impact.
-
Paris Climate Agreement of 2015 replaced the Kyoto Protocol.
-
Paris Agreement includes commitments from major GHG-emitting countries to reduce pollution.
3. Understanding Kyoto Protocol
- The Kyoto Protocol mandated that industrialized nations cut their greenhouse gas emissions at a time when the threat of global warming was growing rapidly.
- The Protocol was linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It was adopted in Kyoto, Japan on Dec. 11, 1997, and became international law on Feb. 16, 2005.
- Countries that ratified the Kyoto Protocol were assigned maximum carbon emission levels for specific periods and participated in carbon credit trading.
- If a country emitted more than its assigned limit, then it would be penalized by receiving a lower emissions limit in the following period.
4. Major Tenets
- Developed, industrialized countries made a promise under the Kyoto Protocol to reduce their annual hydrocarbon emissions by an average of 5.2% by the year 2012.
- This number would represent about 29% of the world's total greenhouse gas emissions.
- Targets depended on the individual country. As a result, each nation had a different target to meet by that year.
- Members of the European Union (EU) pledged to cut emissions by 8%, while the U.S. and Canada promised to reduce their emissions by 7% and 6%, respectively, by 2012.
5. Responsibilities of Developed Vs. Developing Nations
- The Kyoto Protocol recognized that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity.
- As such, the protocol placed a heavier burden on developed nations than on less-developed nations.
- The Kyoto Protocol mandated that 37 industrialized nations plus the EU cut their GHG emissions.
- Developing nations were asked to comply voluntarily, and more than 100 developing countries, including China and India, were exempted from the Kyoto Agreement altogether.
6. Particular function for Developing Countries
- The protocol separated countries into two groups: Annex I contained developed nations, and Non-Annex I referred to developing countries.
- The protocol placed emission limitations on Annex I countries only. Non-Annex I nations participated by investing in projects designed to lower emissions in their countries.
- For these projects, developing countries earned carbon credits, which they could trade or sell to developed countries, allowing the developed nations a higher level of maximum carbon emissions for that period.
- In effect, this function helped the developed countries to continue emitting GHG vigorously.
- The United States, which had ratified the original Kyoto Agreement dropped out of the protocol in 2001.
- The U.S. believed that the agreement was unfair because it called only for industrialized nations to limit emissions reductions, and it felt that doing so would hurt the U.S. economy.
The Kyoto Protocol established three different mechanisms to enable countries additional ways to meet their emission-limitation target. The three mechanisms are:
- The International Emissions Trading mechanism: Countries that have excess emission units permitted to them but not used can engage in carbon trading and sell these units to countries over their target.
- The Clean Development Mechanism: Countries with emission-reducing or limiting commitments may implement emission-reducing projects in developing countries to earn certified emission-reduction credits.
- The Joint Implementation mechanism: Countries with emission-reducing or limiting commitments to earn emission-reducing units from a project in another party.
- In December 2012, after the Protocol's first commitment period ended, parties to the Kyoto Protocol met in Doha, Qatar, to adopt an amendment to the original Kyoto Agreement.
- This so-called Doha Amendment added new emission-reduction targets for the second commitment period, 2012-2020, for participating countries.
- The Doha Amendment had a short life. In 2015, at the sustainable development summit held in Paris, all UNFCCC participants signed yet another Pact, the Paris Climate Agreement, which effectively replaced the Kyoto Protocol.
- The Paris Climate Agreement is a landmark environmental pact that was adopted by nearly every nation in 2015 to address climate change and its negative effects.
- The agreement includes commitments from all major GHG-emitting countries to cut their climate-altering pollution and to strengthen those commitments over time.
- A major directive of the deal calls for reducing global GHG emissions to limit the earth's temperature increase in this century to 2 degrees (Preferring a 1.5-degree increase ) Celsius above preindustrial levels.
- The Paris Agreement also provides a way for developed nations to assist developing nations in their efforts to adopt climate control, and it creates a framework for monitoring and reporting a country's climate goals transparently.
|
For Prelims: Kyoto Protocol, Paris Climate Agreement, Doha Amendment, European Union (EU), Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), Green House Gas (GHG) emissions, Carbon credit Trading, UNFCCC (United Nations framework convention on climate change),
and Clean Development mechanism.
For Mains: 1. What were the main goals and objectives of the Kyoto Protocol? Explain Why did the United States withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol, and what were the reasons cited? (250 words).
|
|
Previous year Question
Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2016)
Terms have sometimes been seen in the news Their origin
1. Annex-I Countries Cartagena Protocol
2. Certified Emissions Reductions Nagoya Protocol
3. Clean Development Mechanism Kyoto Protocol
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer C
|
Source: Investopedia
MAHATMA GANDHI NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT (MGNREGA)
1. Context
The scheme under the MGNREG Act enables the rural population to access employment for 100 days in a year. The card entitles villagers to seek work with the government and earn wages guaranteed under the scheme
There are 256.9 million registered workers, out of which 143.3 million are categorised as active by the Union Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD)
2. About the National Level Monitoring (NLM) report
- The National Level Monitoring (NLM) report is a study conducted by the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) to assess the implementation of various rural development programs in India.
- The report is based on field visits and interviews with stakeholders at the grassroots level.
- The NLM report is an important tool for the government to identify areas where improvement is needed and track rural development programs' progress.
- The report also provides valuable insights into the challenges faced by rural communities and the impact of government interventions.
The NLM report typically identifies the following areas:
- The coverage of rural development programs
- The quality of implementation of rural development programs
- The impact of rural development programs on the lives of rural people
The NLM report also provides recommendations to the government on improving the implementation of rural development programs and making them more effective.
3. The findings of the NLM report
- In 2017-18, the NLM report found that the quality of construction of 87% of the verified works under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) was satisfactory. However, the report also found that only 139 out of 301 districts had seven registers maintained satisfactorily.
- In 2018-19, the NLM report found that the job cards, an important document that records entitlements received under MGNREGA, were not regularly updated in many districts. The report also found that there were significant delays in payments to workers.
- In 2019-20, the NLM report found that the Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana - Gramin (PMAY-G) program was facing challenges due to a shortage of construction materials and skilled labour. The report also found that there were delays in the processing of applications and the release of funds.
- The NLM report for 2020-21 found that the coverage of rural development programs had improved significantly in recent years. However, the report also found that there was still a need to improve the quality of implementation of these programs.
- The NLM report for 2021-22 found that the impact of rural development programs on the lives of rural people had been positive overall. However, the report also found that there were still some disparities in the impact of these programs across different regions and social groups.
4. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is a social welfare program that guarantees 100 days of unskilled manual wage employment in a financial year to a rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. The Act was enacted by the Government of India in 2005 and came into force on February 2, 2006.
4.1. Mandate and Goals
- The mandate of MGNREGA is to provide employment and ensure food security for rural households.
- The scheme also aims to strengthen natural resource management, create durable assets, improve rural infrastructure, and promote social equity.
- The goals of MGNREGA are to Reduce rural poverty, Increase employment opportunities, Improve food security, Create durable assets, Improve rural infrastructure and Promote social equity.
4.2. Core Objectives
- The primary goal of MGNREGA is to provide at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.
- The program aims to reduce poverty and distress by offering employment opportunities, especially during seasons of agricultural unemployment.
- MGNREGA encourages the creation of productive and durable assets such as water conservation structures, rural infrastructure, and land development. These assets not only improve rural livelihoods but also contribute to sustainable development.
- The Act promotes gender equality by ensuring that at least one-third of the beneficiaries are women and that their participation in the workforce is actively encouraged.
4.3. Key Stakeholders
- Rural households are the primary beneficiaries and participants in the MGNREGA scheme.
- Gram Panchayats play a pivotal role in implementing the program at the grassroots level. They are responsible for planning, execution, and monitoring of MGNREGA projects within their jurisdiction.
- The central government provides the funds and sets the broad guidelines, while the state governments are responsible for the program's effective implementation.
- The DPC is responsible for the overall coordination and monitoring of MGNREGA activities within a district.
- Rural labourers, both skilled and unskilled, participate in MGNREGA projects and directly benefit from the program.
4.4. Role of Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat
- The Gram Sabha is the village assembly consisting of all registered voters in a village. Its role in MGNREGA includes discussing and approving the annual development plan, ensuring transparency in project selection, and conducting social audits to monitor program implementation.
- The Gram Panchayat is responsible for planning, approving, executing, and monitoring MGNREGA projects within its jurisdiction. It also maintains records of employment provided, ensures timely wage payments, and conducts social audits. The Panchayat is accountable for the effective utilization of MGNREGA funds.
4.5. Issues with MGNREGA
- Delayed wage payments to labourers have been a persistent issue, affecting the livelihoods of beneficiaries.
- There have been cases of corruption and leakages in the implementation of MGNREGA projects, leading to suboptimal outcomes.
- Administrative inefficiencies, complex procedures, and bureaucratic hurdles have hampered program delivery.
- Some argue that the quality and effectiveness of assets created under MGNREGA projects have been variable and not always aligned with the intended goals.
- Not all eligible rural households are provided 100 days of guaranteed employment, which can limit the program's impact.
- Adequate budget allocation to meet the program's demands and inflation-adjusted wages remains a concern.
5. Conclusion
MGNREGA has made a positive impact on the lives of rural people, particularly in terms of employment opportunities and the creation of durable assets. It remains a crucial tool in India's efforts to promote rural development, reduce poverty, and achieve social equity. Addressing the identified issues will be critical in ensuring the continued success and effectiveness of the program in the years to come.
|
For Prelims: MGNREGA, National Level Monitoring (NLM) report, Ministry of Rural Development, rural development, Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana - Gramin (PMAY-G),
For Mains:
1. Evaluate the importance of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act in the context of rural development and food security in India. How does MGNREGA contribute to sustainable development and rural infrastructure improvement? (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
Prelims
1. Among the following who are eligible to benefit from the “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act”? (UPSC 2011) (a) Adult members of only the scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households Answer: D 2. The Multi-dimensional Poverty Index developed by Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative with UNDP support covers which of the following? (UPSC 2012)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A 3. Which of the following grants/grant direct credit assistance to rural households? (UPSC 2013)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: C 4. How does the National Rural Livelihood Mission seek to improve livelihood options of rural poor? (UPSC 2012)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B 5. Under the Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana-Gramin (PMAY-G), the ratio of the cost of unit assistance to be shared between the Central and State Governments is: (MP Patwari 2017) A. 60:40 in plain areas and 90:10 for North Eastern and the Himalayan States
B. 70:30 in plain areas and 80:20 for North Eastern and the Himalayan States
C. 50:50 in plain areas and 70:30 for North Eastern and the Himalayan States
D. 75:25 in Plain areas and 85:15 for North Eastern and the Himalayan States
Answer: A
Mains
1. The basis of providing urban amenities in rural areas (PURA) is rooted in establishing connectivity. Comment (UPSC 2013)
|
Source: indianexpress
NET ZERO
1. Context
The cost of transitioning to net zero carbon emissions by 2050 would lead to lower demand due to higher energy costs. But this could be offset by recycling carbon revenues into government investments and lower employment taxes
2. What is Net Zero?
Net zero refers to achieving a balance between the amount of greenhouse gases produced and the amount removed from the atmosphere. It's a state where the net emissions of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, are reduced to as close to zero as possible. This balance can be achieved by either eliminating greenhouse gas emissions entirely or by offsetting emissions through various means, such as carbon capture and storage or investing in projects that remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, like afforestation or reforestation initiatives. The goal of reaching net zero is crucial in combating climate change and stabilizing global temperatures
3. Why is net zero important?
Net zero is critical in the fight against climate change for several reasons:
Limiting global warming:
- The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that reaching net zero by mid-century is crucial to limiting global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. This goal is essential to avoid the worst impacts of climate change, such as extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and mass extinctions.
- By balancing emissions and removals, we prevent the further accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, stabilizing the climate system and preventing further damage.
Environmental benefits:
- Reducing greenhouse gas emissions also leads to cleaner air, benefiting public health and reducing respiratory illnesses.
- Limiting warming protects ecosystems and the biodiversity they support, preserving vital natural resources and services.
- By lowering carbon dioxide levels, net zero helps mitigate ocean acidification, which is harmful to marine life and ecosystems.
Economic and social benefits:
- The transition to net zero creates opportunities for new technologies, industries, and jobs, driving economic growth and innovation.
- Reducing reliance on fossil fuels enhances energy security and independence from volatile global markets.
- Climate change poses a serious threat to human health. Achieving net zero reduces these risks and promotes healthier communities.
Global cooperation:
- Net zero is a global challenge requiring international collaboration and cooperation. Achieving this goal requires all nations to contribute and share best practices.
- We have a moral obligation to future generations to protect the planet and ensure a sustainable future. Net zero is an essential step in this direction
4. How can net zero be achieved?
Achieving net zero involves a multifaceted approach across various sectors. Here are some key strategies:
- Transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal power is crucial. This involves increasing renewable energy capacity and enhancing energy efficiency
- Encouraging the use of electric vehicles, heat pumps, and other clean technologies can reduce emissions in transportation, heating, and cooling sectors
- Improving energy efficiency in buildings, industries, and appliances can significantly reduce energy consumption and emissions
- Implementing technologies that capture carbon dioxide emissions from industrial processes and power generation, followed by storing or utilizing it, can help offset emissions
- Protecting and restoring forests, wetlands, and other ecosystems can capture and store carbon dioxide naturally, contributing to offsetting emissions
- Encouraging industries to adopt cleaner production methods, such as low-carbon cement production or sustainable agricultural practices, can reduce emissions
- Implementing policies like carbon pricing, emissions regulations, and incentives for renewable energy can drive the transition to net zero
- Investing in research and development of new technologies, materials, and processes that produce fewer emissions is crucial for long-term sustainability
- Encouraging individuals and communities to adopt sustainable practices like reducing meat consumption, using public transportation, and embracing energy-efficient habits contributes to emissions reduction
5. Net Zero vs Carbon Nuetral
| Subject | Net Zero | Carbon Neutral |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | Achieving a balance between emissions produced and removed from the atmosphere, ideally resulting in no net emissions. | Offsetting or balancing the emissions released with an equivalent amount of emissions removed or avoided elsewhere. |
| Focus | Focuses on achieving a balance of overall greenhouse gas emissions, not necessarily zero emissions for all activities. | Primarily focuses on balancing carbon dioxide emissions, often through offsets or carbon credits. |
| Scope | Includes all greenhouse gases, not just carbon dioxide, aiming to balance the overall emissions footprint. | Primarily centered on carbon dioxide emissions, sometimes excluding other greenhouse gases. |
| Time frame | Doesn't necessarily imply immediate zero emissions but aims to balance emissions over time, potentially allowing some emissions with equivalent removal. | Allows for ongoing emissions if they are compensated by an equivalent amount of carbon removal or offsetting. |
| Strategies | Involves reducing emissions as much as possible and offsetting remaining emissions through various methods like carbon capture, afforestation, etc. | Focuses on offsetting carbon emissions through projects that remove or prevent an equivalent amount of carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere. |
| Target | Generally considered a more ambitious goal as it aims to ultimately eliminate or balance all greenhouse gas emissions. | May be perceived as a less ambitious goal since it primarily targets carbon emissions and allows for offsetting rather than complete elimination. |
6. Way forward
At the COP28 event, the IAEA director general also announced that a first of its kind Nuclear Energy Summit would be held in Brussels in March next year to discuss the role of nuclear energy in reducing the use of fossil fuels, enhancing energy security and boosting economic development
Source: indianexpress
LANDFILLS
1. Context
Scientific landfills are considered containment systems that isolate waste from the surrounding environment. On the contrary, if the landfills are not scientifically constructed and operated, they can act as a hub of numerous kinds of contaminants including plastics.
Plastic waste dumping into landfills and dumpsites around the world is a global concern, causing environmental and human health hazards.
2. What is a Landfill?
- A landfill site, also known as a rubbish dump, garbage dump, or dumping ground, is a site for the disposal of waste material. It is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal.
- US Environment Protection Agency (EPA) has established specific guidelines regarding the creation and management of Landfills.
- In India, landfills are managed under the new solid waste management rules (SWM), 2016.
- However, many of the guidelines have not been adhered to e.g., the Bhalswa landfill is right next to the Bhalswa lake. However, the SWM Rules 2016 mandate that the landfill site shall be 100 metres away from a river, 200 metres from a pond, 500 metres away from highways, habitations, public parks and water supply wells and 20 km away from airports/airbases.
Image Source: Blackstone Environment3. How do landfills catch fire?
- India's municipalities have been collecting more than 95% of the waste generated in cities but the efficiency of waste processing is 30-40% at best.
- The municipal solid waste consists of about 60% biodegradable material, 25% non-biodegradable material and 15% inert materials, like slit and stone.
- Municipalities are expected to process the wet and dry waste separately and to have the recovered byproducts recycled.
- Unfortunately, the rate of processing in India's cities is far lower than the rate of waste generation, so unprocessed waste remains in open landfills for long periods of time.
- This openly disposed of waste includes flammable material like low-quality plastics, which have a relatively higher calorific value of about 2,500-3,000 kcal/kg, and rags and clothes.
- In summer, the biodegradable fraction composts much faster, increasing the temperature of the heap beyond 70-80 degrees celsius.
- A higher temperature coupled with flammable materials is the perfect situation for a landfill to catch fire. Some fires go on for months.
4. Reasons behind frequent landfill fires
- Landfills are the largest source of methane emissions which are highly flammable in nature and play a large role in the ignition of landfill fires.
- The decomposition of waste is largely anaerobic in a landfill, which results in the production of large quantities of methane and carbon dioxide.
- The surface fires at dumpsites are also caused by equipment-related factors. This includes debris trapped under machines, heat from equipment (exhaust pipes) and welding.
- These fires are also a result of human factors. Waste pickers who scavenge the waste may inadvertently start a fire by smoking in the landfill.
- The temperature of a region also aids in fire generation. For instance, the ongoing heat wave in Delhi enhanced the probability of fire in a landfill.
5. Impacts of Landfill fires
- Fore at the Bhalswa landfill site churned out dense plumes of smoke and turned the sky hazy grey leading to air pollution. Further, there is a release of a large amount of GHG gases.
- It causes health ailments in residents living nearby the landfill like sore throat, itchy eyes and breathing problems.
- A thick layer of smoke caused by fire impairs the visibility of commuters. For instance, vehicles travelling on the Pallavaram-Thoraipakkam 200 feet radial road (near the perungudi dump yard) have been experiencing poor visibility since the onset of the fire.
- It also impacts the nearby schools in the vicinity which are forced to shut down temporarily in wake of children's health.
6. Solutions to manage landfill fires
- There are two possible permanent solutions to manage landfill fires.
- The first solution is to completely cap the material using soil, and close landfills in a scientific manner. This solution is unsuitable in the Indian context, as the land can't be used again for other purposes. Closed landfills have specific standard operating procedures, including managing methane emissions.
- The second solution is to clear the piles of waste through bioremediation excavate old waste and use automated sieving machines to segregate the flammable refuse-derived fuel (RDF) (plastics, rags, clothes, etc.) from biodegradable material.
- The recovered RDF can be sent to cement kilns as fuel, while the soil can be distributed to farmers to enrich the soil. The inert fraction will have to be landfilled. However, implementing a bioremediation project usually takes up to two or three years, necessitating a short-term solution for summertime landfill fires.
7. Government initiatives to control landfill fires
- The government of India has undertaken multiple large-scale national initiatives such as ‘The Swachh Bharat Mission’, ‘The National Water Mission’ and the Waste to wealth mission as a part of its commitment to effective waste & pollution management in India.
- Emphasis has also been laid on the approach of setting up Decentralised Waste processing sites within Cities to cater problem of fresh MSW and legacy waste management (Solid waste in landfills).
Previous year Question
|
1. As per the Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 in India, which one of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2019)
A. Waste generator has to segregate waste into five categories.
B. The Rules are applicable to notifies urban local bodies, notified towns and all industrial townships only.
C. The Rules provide for exact and elaborate criteria for the identification of sites for landfills and waste processing facilities.
D. It is mandatory on the part of the waste generator that the waste generated in one district cannot be moved to another district.
Answer: C
|
For Prelims & Mains
|
For Prelims: landfills, US Environment Protection Agency (EPA), solid waste management rules (SWM), Bhalswa lake, Green House Gases (GHG), Refuse-derived fuel (RDF), The Swachh Bharat Mission, The National Water Mission, and Waste to wealth mission.
For Mains: 1. Explain how landfills catch fire and discuss the impacts of landfill fires and suggest some measures or solutions to control them.
|
Source: The Hindu
KUNO NATIONAL PARK
1.Context
After a series of deaths that marred the cheetah introduction project in India, the officials at Kuno National Park (KNP), Madhya Pradesh announced the birth of three cubs on January 3, 2023. This is the second litter born at KNP
2.About Kuno National Park
- Kuno National Park is a national park and Wildlife Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, India. It derives its name from Kuno River
- It was established in 1981 as a wildlife sanctuary with an initial area of 344.686 km² in the Sheopur and Morena districts. In 2018, it was given the status of a national park
- This area which has become a National Park today started out as a sanctuary of about 350 sq. kms. And was in shape of a leaf with Kuno river forming the main centre spine. This river not only helps in keeping a constant water supply in the area and irrigating the forest from inside out but also gave this protected area its name
- Kuno National Park / Kuno Wildlife Division and the surrounding area has historically been rich with wildlife.This area was known to be a dense forest in ancient times as well
- One of the gazette of Gwalior princely state of year 1902, records that the Mughal Emperor Akbar while returning from Malwa region captured a big herd of elephants in the forests near Shivpuri in the year 1564
- Abul fazal also mentioned this fact that Lions were found in this region and the last Lion in this region is known to be shot near to city of Guna in the year 1872.
- In the year 1904 Lord Curzon was invited for hunting by the then His Highness Madhavrao Scindia,the Ist, King of Gwalior
- Lord Curzon was so much impressed with the forest of valley of Kuno that he immediately suggested the King to bring Lions from Junaghad, Gir and released in the forest
- King Scindia started working on it with the audacity suitable to a Maharaja and tried collaborating on his level, with the Nawab of Junaghad
- Later Lord Curzon even presented the King with a letter addressed to the ruler of Abisinia (Current Ethopia) so that some lions from there could be brought to Kuno
- A Persian expert named D.M. Zaal was made in charge of this project by the King and in 1905 , this project was allocated Rs. 1 lakh budget in that year.
3. Significance of Kuno National Park
- The area surrounding Kuno river has been rich in biodiversity since ancient times. Its importance can be reflected in the 30,000-year-old cave paintings in nearby Pahargarh depicting multiple wild animals.
- Biogeographically this area falls under the Kathiawar-Gir dry deciduous forest eco-region and the forest types found in this area include the Northern tropical dry deciduous forest, Southern tropical dry deciduous forest, Dry Savannah forest & grassland, Tropical riverine forest
- It is equally rich in the faunal species and thus provide a rare amalgamation of various favourable factors for wildlife
- The significance of this area is strengthened by the fact that because of its aptness on various parameters Wildlife Institute of India chose this as the most suitable location for Lion Reintroduction Program in its study
- Government of Madhya Pradesh revised the status of this area, ameliorating it to become a National Park with 748.761 square km as the core and 557.278 buffer area as the buffer in December 2018
- This upgradation of Kuno Sanctuary to Kuno National Park further cements it’s importance in the field of Wildlife Conservation in Central Indian Landscape.
4.Biodiversity of Kuno
- Thus Kuno National Park’s forest area is mainly dominated by Kardhai, Salai, Khair trees among mostly mixed forests, this also helps it in having a variety of species of flora and fauna. In all, a total of 123 species of trees , 71 species of shrubs , 32 species of climbers and exotic species and 34 species of bamboos and grasses are found in Kuno National Park
- Kuno has one of the most unique combination of forest and vegetation in entire Madhya Pradesh and adjoining areas which can only be seen to be believed
The forests of Kuno National Park are broadly classified into the following types:
- “Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest”
- Southern Tropical Very Dry Teak Forest
- Northern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest
- Northern Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest
- Northern Tropical Dry Deciduous Scrub
- Northern Tropical Thorn Forest
- Ravine Thorn Forest
- Zizyphus Scrub
|
Kuno National Park which is mainly dominated by Kardhai, Salai, Khair trees among the mixed forests, supports a vide variety of both floral and faunal species. It has a rich biodiversity having a total of 123 species of trees , 71 species of shrubs , 32 species of climbers & exotic species, 34 species of bamboos and grasses, 33 species of mammals, 206 species of birds, 14 species of fishes, 33 species of reptiles and 10 species of amphibians. Such a high number of both floral and faunal species make it one of the most biodiverse areas of Central Indian Landscape.
|
5.Why Kuno is best for Cheeta re-introduction
The Kuno National Park has diverse habitats conducive for lions and cheetahs constituted by
- Open woodlands,
- Savanna,
- Dry deciduous forests.
- Evergreen riverine forests
Forest grass species are common in valley habitats while plateau tops had shorter grasses
Kuno National Park is part of a large forested landscape constituted by the Sheopur-Shivpuri forests covering an area of -6800 sq. km.
The density of leopards in Kuno National Park is 8.9 per 100 sq. km
6.About Kuno river
The Kuno River is one of the main tributaries of the Chambal River
It flows through the Kuno National Park from south to north, draining the other rivulets and Tributaries into Chambal River in Morena at MP-Rajasthan border
It is 180 km long and originates from the Shivpuri Plateau
Source: Indianexpress
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
1. Context
The Supreme Court on Monday issued notices to the Centre and states in a writ petition seeking the enforcement of the fundamental duties of citizens as enshrined in the Constitution of India
2. Background
- The original constitution of India contained only the Fundamental Rights and not the Fundamental Duties.
- In 1976, Fundamental Duties were added to the Constitution by the 42nd CAA, 1976. One more FD was added by the 86th CAA 2002, totaling 11 duties.
- Fundamental Duties are inspired by the Constitution of the erstwhile USSR.
- The Japanese Constitution is the only democratic constitution in the world with a list of duties of citizens.
- Supreme Court (1992): In determining the constitutional validity of any law, if the law in question seeks to give effect to FDs, it may consider such law to be ‘reasonable’ in relation to Art. 14 or Art. 19 and thus save such law from unconstitutionality.
- Paying taxes (Recommended by Swaran Singh) and voting in elections are not included in Fundamental Duties.
- FDs help the courts in examining and determining the constitutional validity of a law.
Fundamental Duties are confined to citizens only & not to foreigners.
3. List of Fundamental Duties
- To abide by the Constitution and respect the National Flag and National Anthem (Not including the national song).
- To follow the noble ideals that inspired the struggle for freedom.
- To protect the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India.
- To render national service when called upon to do so.
- To promote the common spirit of brotherhood amongst all Indians + to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.
- To preserve the rich heritage of the country’s culture.
- To protect the national environment including forests, lakes, wildlife, etc.
- To develop a scientific temper, humanism, and spirit of reform and inquiry.
- To safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
- To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individuals.
- To provide an opportunity for education to his child between the age of 6 and 14 years.
4. Important Feature of Fundamental Duties
- Fundamental duties are confined to citizens only & not to foreigners.
- Fundamental duties are non-justiciable by courts. However, parliament can enforce this through suitable legislation.
- The duty to pay taxes and the Duty to vote are not part of Fundamental Duties.
- Verma Committee on Fundamental Duties of the Citizens (1999). Identified the existence of legal provisions for the implementation of some Fundamental Duties. Ex: Wild Life Protection Act, 1972.
- Verma committee recommended reorienting approaches to the school curriculum and teacher education programs and incorporating FDs in higher and professional education.
5. Swaran Singh Committee recommendations
- In 1976, the Fundamental Duties were first recommended by the Swaran Singh committee; its need was felt during the internal emergency (1975-77).
- The 42nd CAA, 1976 added a new part IV-A to the constitution consisting of a single Article 51A, which contains ten fundamental duties of citizens (Presently 11 duties).
- The committee suggested eight Fundamental Duties, the 42nd CAA, 1976 included ten Fundamental Duties.
- Swaran Singh Committee had suggested for penalty or punishment for the non-performance of Fundamental Duties.
- No law imposing such a penalty or punishment shall be called in question in any court.
- Duty to pay taxes should also be a Fundamental Duty of the citizens.
| For Prelims: Fundamental Duties, 42nd Constitutional Amendment, 86th Constitutional Amendment, Swaran Singh Committee, Article 51A, Verma Committee on Fundamental Duties of the Citizens (1999). |
Previous year Questions
|
1. Which of the following statements is/are true of the Fundamental Duties of an Indian citizen? (UPSC 2017)
1. A legislative process has been provided to enforce these duties.
2. They are correlative to legal duties.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
2. Which of the following is/are among the Fundamental Duties of citizens laid down in the Indian Constitution? (UPSC 2012)
1. To preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture
2. To protect the weaker sections from social injustice
3. To develop the scientific temper and spirit of inquiry
4. To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 1, 3, and 4 only
D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer C
3. Under the Constitution of India, which one of the following is not a fundamental duty? (UPSC 2011)
A. To vote in public elections
B. To develop the scientific temper
C. To safeguard public property
D. To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals
Answer: A
|
Source: The Indian Express
KUKI TRIBE
1. Context
Manipur Chief Minister N Biren Singh has said that the state government may consider setting up a committee to discuss the Scheduled Tribe status of Kukis in the state. He was responding to questions about a representation made by a Meitei leader seeking that Kukis be removed from the list while reiterating the long-pending demand of Meiteis for ST status.
2. Who are Kukis?
- The Kukis are an ethnic group including multiple tribes originally inhabiting the North-Eastern states of India such as Manipur, Mizoram and Assam; parts of Burma (now Myanmar), and Sylhet district and Chittagong hill tracts of Bangladesh.
- While Kuki is not a term coined by the ethnic group itself, the tribes associated with it came to be generically called Kuki under colonial rule.
- In Manipur, the various Kuki tribes, living mainly in the hills, currently make up 30% of the total 28.5 lakh population of the State.
- The rest of the population of Manipur is made up mainly of two other ethnic groups: the Meiteis or non-tribal, Vaishnavite Hindus who live in the valley region of Manipur, and the Naga tribes, historically at loggerheads with the Kukis, also living in the hilly areas of the State.
- Of the 60 seats in the Manipur Assembly, 40 are held by Meiteis and the rest 20 seats are held by Kukis and Nagas.
- The people of Manipur are grouped into three main ethnic communities Meiteis those inhabiting the valley and 29 major tribes in the hills dividing into two main ethno denominations, namely Nagas and Kuki-Chins.
3. Which are the major communities residing in Manipur?
The major communities residing in Manipur are:
Meiteis
- The Meiteis, also known as Manipuris, are the largest and dominant ethnic group in Manipur, constituting around 53% of the state's population.
- They primarily inhabit the Imphal Valley, the central valley region of Manipur.
- Their language, Meitei (officially called Manipuri), is the sole official language of the state and one of the 22 official languages of India.
- The Meiteis have a rich cultural heritage, with unique traditions, dance forms like Manipuri Raas Leela and various festivals, including Yaoshang and Kang Chingba.
- The majority of Meiteis follow Hinduism, with a mix of indigenous beliefs. The cultural identity of Meiteis has played a significant role in shaping the history and politics of Manipur.
Naga Tribes
- Various Naga tribes collectively form the second-largest community in Manipur, representing about 24% of the population.
- Some prominent Naga tribes include Tangkhul, Mao, Maram, Zeme, and Kabui.
- They primarily reside in the northern hilly regions of Manipur.
- Each Naga tribe has its own distinct language and culture, with rich traditions, festivals, and attire.
- Their villages are spread across the hills, and each tribe has its own traditional governance system.
Kuki/Zo Tribes
- The Kuki/Zo tribes are the third largest community in Manipur, constituting about 16% of the population.
- Some prominent Kuki/Zo tribes include Thadou, Gangte, Hmar, Paite, and Simte.
- They primarily reside in the southern hilly regions of Manipur.
- Similar to the Naga tribes, each Kuki/Zo tribe has its own distinct language, culture, and traditions.
- While some Kuki groups follow traditional indigenous religions, a significant number have adopted Christianity, introduced by missionaries during the British colonial period.
- Pangals (Manipuri Muslims): The Pangals are Meiteis who converted to Islam, forming the Muslim community in Manipur. They have a unique cultural identity that combines elements of Meitei culture with Islamic traditions. Pangals are spread across the state, and they have contributed to the socio-cultural fabric of Manipur.
- Mizos: While the majority of Mizos reside in the neighbouring state of Mizoram, there is a Mizo population in the Churachandpur district of Manipur. They are part of the larger Mizo community.
- Monsangs (Monsang Naga): The Monsangs are a Naga tribe residing in the northeastern part of Manipur, particularly in Tamenglong district. They have their distinct language and cultural practices.
- Zeliangrongs (Zeliangrong Naga): The Zeliangrongs are a Naga tribe comprising three major communities: Zeme, Liangmei, and Rongmei. They mainly inhabit the hills of Tamenglong district.
- Kom/Komrem: The Kom people are one of the indigenous communities in Manipur, residing primarily in the northeastern part of the state.
- Mao (Mao Naga): The Mao Naga community is one of the Naga tribes in Manipur, with a significant population in the Senapati district.
- Gangtes: The Gangte community is a Kuki-Chin-Mizo ethnic group residing in the hills of Manipur.
- Hmars: The Hmars are a Kuki-Chin-Mizo ethnic group with a presence in Manipur, especially in the Churachandpur district.
4. Reasons for the Meitei community wants ST status
The Meitei community, the dominant group in Manipur, has been demanding Scheduled Tribe (ST) status for over a decade. Several factors contribute to this demand, and the debate surrounding it is complex and multi-faceted.
Historical Factors
- The Meiteis argue that they were historically recognized as a tribe by the British during colonial rule. Some historical documents indicate the inclusion of Meiteis in the list of "semi-Hinduized tribes" or "hill tribes." However, others assert that they were classified as a caste or a martial race depending on context.
- They claim that after the merger of Manipur with India in 1949, they lost their tribal status and the associated benefits, such as reservations in education and government jobs. This, they argue, led to their marginalization compared to other ST communities.
Socio-Economic Conditions
- The Meiteis argue that despite being the largest ethnic group, they lag behind other ST communities in terms of socio-economic development. They face issues like poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to quality education and healthcare.
- Some Meiteis, particularly those residing in the hills, feel they are disadvantaged in terms of land ownership compared to other tribes. They believe ST status would enable them to better protect their ancestral land rights.
Cultural Preservation: The Meiteis argue that their culture, language (Manipuri), and traditions are distinct from those of other communities in Manipur. They believe ST status would provide them with constitutional safeguards to preserve their unique identity and heritage.
5. Reasons for the Kuki group opposing
The issue of Meiteis seeking Scheduled Tribe (ST) status in Manipur is intricately woven with opposition from the Kuki community, primarily comprised of various Kuki-Zo tribes. Here are some key reasons behind their resistance:
- Kukis fear that granting ST status to the Meiteis, who already constitute a dominant majority, could dilute the existing benefits and resources allocated to their own community. This includes reservations in education, government jobs, and other opportunities reserved for ST communities.
- Many Kukis believe that Meiteis, with their historical and political prominence, may not meet the true criteria for ST status based on socio-economic backwardness compared to other marginalized tribal groups. They worry that granting them similar benefits could create an unfair advantage and disrupt the existing balance of power and resources among various communities in Manipur.
- Complex historical relationships between the Meiteis and some Kuki tribes continue to influence the present. Past conflicts and land disputes have left scars, and granting ST status to the Meiteis could be perceived as further empowering them at the expense of Kuki communities.
- While Meiteis emphasize their historical tribal recognition and claim marginalization after losing ST status, Kukis often assert that Meiteis were never truly tribals and enjoyed advantages throughout history. This clashing of narratives makes it difficult to find common ground and fuels further scepticism toward the Meiteis' claims.
- The issue has become politicized, with various political parties aligning with different communities based on their constituencies. This politicization further complicates the debate and may prioritize political gains over objective considerations.
- Some Kukis express concern that granting ST status to Meiteis might lead to a homogenization of tribal identity and culture in Manipur. They fear that their own unique tribal identity and customs could be overshadowed by the larger Meitei community.
- For some Kuki groups residing in the hills, granting ST status to Meiteis might create potential conflicts over land ownership and ancestral rights. They worry that Meiteis could gain legal advantages concerning land claims in tribal areas.
6. The Way Forward
The debate surrounding Meiteis' ST status is complex, with valid concerns and historical considerations on both sides. Finding a solution requires understanding these complexities, fostering open dialogue, and prioritizing the well-being of all communities while ensuring social justice and upholding constitutional principles.
|
For Prelims: Kuki, Naga, Meiteis, ST, Manipur
For Mains:
1. Discuss the potential political implications of granting ST status to the Meitei community in Manipur. How might it impact the power dynamics between different ethnic groups and political parties in the state? (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions 1. Which of the following is NOT correctly matched? (UPPSC BEO 2020) (Revolts) (Years) A. Neel Rebellion 1859-60 B. Jaintia Rebellion 1860-63 C. Kuki Rebellion 1860-90 D. Kuka Revolt 1870-72 A. ​Neel Rebellion B. Kuki Revellion C. Kuka Revolt D. Jaintiya Rebellion
2. Which two of the following are correctly matched? (UPPSC 2022) Tribe State 1. Kharia Odisha 2. Kuki Uttar Pradesh 3. Yanadi Rajasthan 4. Paliyan Tamil Nadu Select the correct answer from the codes given below. A. 3 and 4 B. 1 and 4 C. 2 and 3 D. 1 and 2 Answers: 1-B, 2-B |
Source: The Indian Express
FOGGING
1. Context
As winter tightened its grip on northern India, a blanket of fog descended on several States in the last days of 2023 and the first of 2024, creating challenging conditions for residents and travellers alike.
2. Dense Fog Blankets in North India
- "December 2023: Extensive Fogging Reported Across Northern States of India In late December 2023, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) noted that minimum temperatures in Punjab, Haryana, and the northern regions of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh ranged between 6-9 degrees Celsius.
- Meanwhile, areas such as New Delhi, south Rajasthan, and north Madhya Pradesh recorded minimum temperatures in the 10-12 degrees Celsius range.
- During this period, a substantial portion of North India encountered dense fog, significantly reducing visibility to as little as 50 meters over several days.
- Haryana, including Chandigarh, along with isolated areas in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh reported fog with visibility dropping below 200 meters.
- Additionally, states such as Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Uttarakhand reported fog for a few hours in the morning, as per the IMD reports."
3. Fog formation
Fog is a meteorological phenomenon characterized by the presence of a thick layer of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air near the Earth's surface, leading to reduced visibility. It occurs when the air is cooled, and moisture condenses, creating a visible mist.
Fog forms when the air reaches a point of saturation, meaning it can no longer hold all the water vapour it contains. This happens when either the temperature drops, causing the air to hold less moisture or the amount of moisture in the air increases. There are several ways this can occur:
- As the ground loses heat to the night sky, the air close to the surface cools down. If it reaches the dew point, the excess moisture condenses into tiny water droplets, forming a radiation fog. This is the most common type, often seen in valleys and open fields.
- When warm, moist air moves over a cold surface, such as a body of water or snow-covered land, it cools down and condenses, forming advection fog. This type is frequently seen near coastlines and mountains.
- When two air masses with different temperatures and moisture content mix, the resulting mixture can become saturated, leading to the formation of mixing fog. This type is common near fronts, where warm and cold air masses collide.
Fog's Characteristics and Features
Once formed, fog exhibits a variety of characteristics and features:
- Fog can range from wispy and ethereal to thick and impenetrable, depending on the amount of moisture present and the size of the water droplets.
- Dense fog can significantly reduce visibility, creating hazardous conditions for transportation and other activities.
- Fog affects how light travels, scattering and diffusing it. This can create a sense of mystery and can also make colours appear muted or washed out.
- Fog acts as a natural sound absorber, muffling sounds and creating a sense of tranquillity.
- Fog provides moisture for plants and can be a vital source of water in arid regions. It can also affect the behaviour of animals, providing cover and influencing migration patterns.
4. Types of Fog
- Radiation fog: An update from the SAFAR forecasting system on Monday categorised the fog episode in Delhi on Monday as "radiation fog". Radiation fog (or ground fog) episodes last for a few mornings on account of calm winds and western disturbances, resulting in localised fog formation.
- Advection fog: Advection fog is larger in scale both in terms of the area covered and duration.
Advection fog forms when warm, moist air passes over a cool surface, causing water vapour to condense. Advection fog mostly occurs where warm, tropical air meets cooler ocean water. If the wind blows in the right direction, sea fog can be transported over coastal land areas.
- Valley fog: It is the result of mountains preventing dense air from escaping, in which the fog is trapped in the bowl of the valley and can last for several days.
- Freezing fog: It is the result of liquid droplets freezing on solid surfaces. Cloud-covered mountain tops often see freezing fog. These do not apply to the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
5. Impacts of the Fog
Fog, a mesmerizing blanket of tiny droplets suspended in the air, can transform landscapes and shroud mornings in an ethereal glow. But beneath its beauty lies a complex web of impacts, affecting the environment and society in diverse and often surprising ways.
Positive Effects
- In dry regions, fog acts as a natural humidifier, delivering vital moisture to parched landscapes and vegetation. This can support plant growth, prevent desertification, and replenish groundwater reserves.
- Fog reflects sunlight back into space, contributing to a cooling effect on the Earth's surface. This role becomes particularly important in mitigating the impacts of climate change.
- Fog droplets can act as tiny air filters, trapping dust, pollutants, and allergens, leading to improved air quality, especially in urban areas.
- Fog provides a unique habitat for specialized plants and animals, supporting biodiversity and ecological balance in certain ecosystems.
- Fog has woven itself into the fabric of human cultures across the world, inspiring folklore, art, and literature. Its ethereal presence often holds symbolic meaning, fostering a sense of mystery and introspection.
Negative Effects
- Dense fog can significantly reduce visibility, leading to delays, accidents, and disruptions in air, sea, and road travel. This can have economic consequences, impacting tourism, trade, and transportation industries.
- Fog can trap air pollutants close to the ground, leading to respiratory problems and exacerbating existing conditions like asthma. This is particularly concerning for vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly.
- Fog can hinder agricultural activities by delaying planting and harvesting, reducing crop yields, and hindering the movement of farm machinery.
- Dense fog can be a major safety hazard for aircraft, leading to runway closures, delays, and cancellations. This can have significant economic and logistical consequences.
- Fog can affect the efficiency of solar and wind power generation by reducing the amount of sunlight and wind that reaches the turbines. This can strain energy grids and contribute to reliance on fossil fuels.
6. Effects of fog in North India
- The dense fog that cloaked North India in late December 2023 wasn't just an inconvenience it brought air travel and train schedules to a near standstill.
- Delhi's Indira Gandhi International Airport bore the brunt of the disruption. On December 27, a suffocating fog layer led to the delay or cancellation of nearly 450 flights, leaving passengers stranded and travel plans in disarray.
- The following days offered little respite, with almost 100 and 80 flights delayed on December 29 and 30, respectively.
- The fog's reach extended beyond the skies, impacting rail travel as well. On December 29, several Delhi-bound trains experienced delays due to poor visibility.
- The disruption was so severe that at least eight trains scheduled to arrive in the national capital the night before never made it, while others scheduled for the morning faced delays of several hours.
7. Reasons for North India Gets Foggy Every Winter
During the winter months, a thick blanket of fog descends upon the Indo-Gangetic plains of northern India. This phenomenon, while beautiful to behold, can also disrupt transportation and daily life. Several factors combine to create the perfect conditions for fog formation in northern India:
- Low temperatures: As winter arrives, temperatures in the region plummet, often dipping below 10°C (50°F). This cold air has a lower capacity to hold moisture, causing water vapour to condense into tiny droplets, forming fog.
- Low wind speeds: Calm winds allow fog to settle and linger over the landscape. Without strong winds to disperse the fog droplets, they can persist for hours or even days.
- Moisture availability: The northern plains receive moisture from various sources, including the Arabian Sea and the Western Disturbances, which are weather systems that bring rain to the region during winter. This abundant moisture provides the raw material for fog formation.
- Aerosols: Tiny particles suspended in the air, known as aerosols, act as condensation nuclei, providing surfaces for water vapour to condense on. The Indo-Gangetic plains, unfortunately, have high levels of air pollution due to factors like vehicular emissions and agricultural burning. These pollutants contribute to the formation of denser and more persistent fog.
8. The Way Forward
While fog can be a beautiful winter spectacle, it can also cause significant disruptions. Understanding the factors that contribute to its formation in North India can help us mitigate its negative impacts and appreciate its unique presence during the winter months.
|
For Prelims: Fog, Indo-Gangetic Plains, Aribean Sea, IMD
For Mains:
1. Critically evaluate the impact of air pollution on fog formation and persistence in North India. What measures can be taken to reduce air pollution and mitigate its influence on fog events? (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions 1. Consider the following statements:(UPSC 2022)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
2. Why are dewdrops not formed on a cloudy night? (UPSC 2019)
Answers: 1-D, 2-B
|
Source: The Hindu
