🔹 A landslide refers to the downward movement of rock, soil, or debris under the force of gravity. It is among the most frequent natural hazards in mountainous terrains worldwide.

🔹 In 2023, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) published the Landslide Atlas of India, which documents event-based and seasonal landslides.

🔹 Roughly 12.6% of India’s geographical area (about 0.42 million sq km), excluding snow-covered regions, is prone to landslides. Data shows that 66.5% occur in the Northwestern Himalayas, 18.8% in the Northeastern Himalayas, and 14.7% in the Western Ghats.

🔹 Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) occur when large volumes of water are suddenly released from glacial lakes formed by retreating glaciers. These depressions fill with meltwater, posing serious hazards when breached.

🔹 Darjeeling, despite its scenic reputation, has a long history of natural disasters. Records show major landslides in 1899, 1934, 1950, 1968, 1975, 1980, 1991, 2011, and 2015. The 1968 event was particularly catastrophic, with floods killing over a thousand people.

🔹 The State of Environment Report 1991 (by CSE) documented nine cloudburst events in the Teesta Valley between 1902 and 1978.

🔹 Several factors have aggravated the region’s vulnerability:

1. Rising population pressure due to migration and unregulated land/property transactions.

2. Climate change impacts – rainfall, earlier spread across months, now occurs in short, intense spells.

3. Changing river and stream courses, often encroaching on human settlements.

4. Unplanned and unsustainable development projects (hydropower, railways, hotels) exert stress on the fragile ecosystem.

5. Encroachment and unauthorised settlements along natural drainage channels and riverbeds, leading to blocked water flow.

🔹 According to ISRO’s Landslide Atlas 2023, Darjeeling ranks 35th among 147 districts most at risk.

🔹 The Lhonak Lake breach in Sikkim (October 2023), which triggered a devastating GLOF, had already been flagged in the Sikkim Human Development Report 2001.

🔹 However, disaster governance remains weak: limited institutional preparedness, inadequate early warning systems, and absence of a professional agency to manage landslide-induced crises—beyond the overburdened office of the District Collector—continue to hinder effective response

What causes landslides?

• Landslides are primarily caused by the downward movement of soil, rocks, or debris under the influence of gravity, but this movement rarely happens in isolation. It is usually triggered when the delicate balance between the resisting forces that hold the slope material together and the driving forces that pull it downward is disturbed. Several natural and human-induced factors contribute to this imbalance.
• One of the most common natural causes is rainfall. Intense or prolonged rainfall saturates the soil, reducing its cohesion and making it heavier. This water infiltration weakens the slope, loosens particles, and eventually triggers mass movement.
• Similarly, earthquakes and tremors can shake loose the soil and rock, instantly destabilizing slopes. In hilly regions, weathering of rocks over time makes them fragile and prone to sliding.
• Another significant natural cause is the retreat of glaciers, which leaves behind unconsolidated debris on steep slopes, making them vulnerable to sliding, especially during snowmelt or heavy rains.
• Alongside natural triggers, human activities have greatly increased the frequency and intensity of landslides. Rapid deforestation removes the protective vegetation cover that binds the soil, while construction of roads, buildings, and hydroelectric projects in fragile hill ecosystems disturbs natural slopes.
• Mining, quarrying, and unplanned urbanisation further weaken the terrain. Additionally, climate change has altered rainfall patterns, leading to sudden cloudbursts and intense rainfall events that make slopes unstable in just a short period.
• Thus, landslides are not caused by a single factor but are the result of a complex interaction between natural processes and human interference. In fragile landscapes like the Himalayas and the Western Ghats, where geology is already young and unstable, this interaction becomes even more pronounced, turning landslides into one of the most serious natural hazards

Follow Up Question

Mains

1.Describe the variopus causes and the effects of landslides. Mention the important components of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy. (UPSC CSE 2021)

Prelims

1.Which of the following statements in respect of landslides are correct? (NDA 2022)

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

A. 1 and 2         

B. 2 and 3           

C. 1 and 3             

D. 1, 2 and 3

Small Modular Reactors(SMRs)

For Preliminary Examination:  Current events of national and international Significance like modular reactors

For Mains Examination: GS III Achievements of Indians in science & technology

Context:

Reliance Industries Ltd, India’s largest private sector corporation, Tata Power, and Adani Power are among six private entities that are learnt to have formally expressed interest to set up small modular nuclear reactor-based projects.

Read about:

How are SMRs different from traditional nuclear reactors?

What are the challenges in developing SMRs?

Key takeaways:

• Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are compact nuclear reactors with a capacity ranging from 30 MWe to 300 MWe per unit. They are being increasingly viewed as crucial for ensuring that nuclear energy remains commercially viable, particularly at a time when large-scale nuclear projects across the world are facing delays in execution.
• Although SMRs generate roughly one-third of the electricity that traditional nuclear power plants can produce, they are still capable of supplying significant amounts of low-carbon energy.
• Their flexibility makes them attractive for energy-intensive industries such as steel, aluminium, and cement. Moreover, they can be installed by retrofitting existing thermal power plant sites that are due for decommissioning, thereby giving a second life to old infrastructure.
• Nuclear power is uniquely positioned as a clean, continuous source of electricity that helps overcome the intermittency problem of renewable sources like solar and wind. Against this backdrop, New Delhi has been actively promoting SMRs, highlighting their potential to decarbonise industries while also projecting India as a leader in advancing this technology.
• In response to tenders issued by the state-owned Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) for the proposed Bharat Small Modular Reactors (BSMRs), major companies such as Hindalco Industries, JSW Energy, and Jindal Steel have shown interest. Six states — Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh — have collectively earmarked around 16 potential sites for these reactors.
• The proposed BSMRs will be built and operated under NPCIL’s supervision, with the corporation maintaining operational authority and asset ownership, while private bidders will have beneficial rights to the electricity produced for captive consumption.
• Globally, two SMR projects are already functional. Russia’s Akademik Lomonosov, a floating nuclear plant with two 35 MWe modules, began operations in May 2020.
• In China, the HTR-PM demonstration project was connected to the grid in December 2021 and reportedly entered commercial operation in December 2023.
• For India, the BSMR initiative is not only part of its clean energy transition but also a step toward embedding SMRs in its foreign policy as a technology-led offering. However, India faces technological challenges.
• Its civil nuclear programme has traditionally relied on pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs) of 220 MWe and above, which use natural uranium and heavy water. These are increasingly considered outdated compared to pressurised water reactors (PWRs) — light-water designs that dominate the global nuclear energy landscape.
• To address this gap, India is pursuing a mixed-technology approach. The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) is developing at least three indigenous SMR prototypes across different reactor designs. Simultaneously, India is seeking to collaborate with countries like the US and Russia, which already have advanced capabilities in SMR and light-water reactor technologies.
• At the policy level, the government is in the process of amending key legislations governing the nuclear sector. The objective is to harmonise India’s legal framework with international standards, remove investor uncertainties, and pave the way for greater participation in the civil nuclear energy market

 Follow Up Question

Mains

1."Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are being seen as a game-changing technology in the global clean energy transition. Discuss their significance for India in terms of energy security, industrial decarbonisation, and foreign policy. What challenges must India overcome to successfully adopt SMRs?"

On declining inflation, improving consumer confidence

For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance

For Mains Examination: GS III - Economy

Context:

Since August 2023, retail inflation in India has witnessed a sharp deceleration from being close to 7% to being around or below 2% in August this year. That means the rate at which the general price level was rising has come down.

Read about:

Consumer Price Index (CPI)

Wholesale Price Index (WPI)

Key takeaways:

Inflation is the sustained rise in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. In simple terms, when the purchasing power of money falls — meaning you can buy fewer things with the same amount of money than before — that is inflation.

It does not mean that the price of one or two items has gone up, but that the overall average price level in the economy is increasing.

For example, if last year ₹100 could buy you a basket of rice, vegetables, and milk, but this year the same basket costs ₹110, then the economy is experiencing 10% inflation.

Economists usually measure inflation using indices like:

• Consumer Price Index (CPI): Reflects changes in the retail prices of goods and services consumed by households.

• Wholesale Price Index (WPI): Tracks changes in the price of goods at the wholesale level.

A moderate level of inflation is considered normal and even necessary for economic growth, as it encourages spending and investment. But high inflation erodes purchasing power and destabilises the economy, while deflation (falling prices) can discourage production and investment.

Consumer Price Index (CPI)

• Meaning: It measures the average change over time in the prices of goods and services that households consume.

• Focus: Retail inflation (prices faced by consumers).

• Base basket: Food, clothing, housing, fuel, education, healthcare, etc.

• Prepared by: National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).

• Types of CPI in India:

  1. CPI (Rural)

  2. CPI (Urban)

  3. CPI (Combined) – Official measure of retail inflation (used by RBI for monetary policy)

Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, 1955

For Preliminary Examination:  Current events of antional and international Importance

For Mains Examination: GS II - Indian Polity & Governance

Context:

In a landmark ruling, the Supreme Court on Thursday upheld the constitutional validity of Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, 1955, which granted citizenship to immigrants who entered Assam before January 1, 1966, and called for stricter implementation of laws against illegal immigration and judicial monitoring of the implementation of immigration and citizenship legislations

Read about:

What is Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, 1955?

What are the questions surrounding Section 6A?

What is the Assam Accord?

Key takeaways:

• The bench held that immigrants entering Assam on or after March 25, 1971, are not eligible for protection under Section 6A, and are therefore deemed illegal immigrants.
• Chief Justice of India (CJI) DY Chandrachud clarified that Section 6A does not violate Articles 6 and 7 of the Constitution, which set a specific cut-off date of January 26, 1950, for granting citizenship to migrants from East and West Pakistan at the time of the Constitution's commencement.
• He stated that the legislative purpose of Section 6A aimed to balance the humanitarian concerns of Indian-origin migrants with the economic and cultural needs of Indian states.
• Although other states have longer borders with Bangladesh, Assam faces a more significant impact from migration in terms of numbers and resources.
• Therefore, the criteria for migration to Assam are reasonable. The March 25, 1971, cut-off date is justified, as it coincides with the eve of the Pakistani Army's Operation Searchlight, launched on March 26, 1971, to suppress the Bangladeshi nationalist movement. Migrants arriving before this event were regarded as part of the Indian partition, and the chosen criteria are logically aligned with Section 6A’s purpose.
• The bench explained that undocumented migrants could have been registered as citizens under Section 5(1)(a) of the Citizenship Act before its amendment in 2003, which then excluded ‘illegal immigrants.’ Thus, the petitioner’s argument that Section 6A is unconstitutional because it allegedly encourages migration to Assam for citizenship purposes is incorrect.
• The ruling also stated that Section 6A aligns with constitutional principles, without violating the concepts of fraternity or Articles 6, 7, 9, 14, 21, 29, 326, and 355 of the Constitution of India. It does not conflict with the Immigrants (Expulsion from Assam) Act, 1950, or international law principles.
• Regarding Section 6A, introduced under the Assam Accord with a specific cut-off date, the Court affirmed its validity, noting that citizenship should not be narrowly interpreted to label one group as citizens and another as ‘illegal immigrants.’
• Agreeing with the majority opinion, CJI Chandrachud emphasized that while the Constitution protects the right to preserve culture, this right must be understood within the framework of India’s multicultural and pluralistic identity.
• The petitioners argued that Section 6A infringes on Article 29 by allowing residents from Bangladesh, who have a different cultural background, to live in Assam and gain citizenship, thereby impacting the preservation of Assamese culture. The Court, however, dismissed this argument

1.What is the position of the Right to Property in India? (UPSC  2021)

(a) Legal right available to citizens only

(b) Legal right available to any person

(c) Fundamental Rights available to citizens only

(d) Neither Fundamental Right nor legal right

Answer (b) The Right to Property in India is not a Fundamental Right. It was originally a Fundamental Right under Article 31 but was removed by the 44th Amendment Act of 1978 and is now a legal right under Article 300A of the Constitution. It is available to any person, not just citizens.

 

 

 

National Makhana Board

 

For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international significance

 

For Mains Examination: GS II - Government Initiatives

 

Context:

 

On 15th September, Prime Minister Narendra Modi launched the National Makhana Board in Purnea, Bihar. The announcement for the creation of the Makhana Board was made in the Union Budget 2025-26. In this context, let’s learn about the Makhana board, Makhana and important geographical aspects of it.

 

Read about:

 

National Makhana Board

 

National Turmeric Board

 

 

Key takeaways:

 

• Makhana, also known as fox nut or gorgon nut, is the dried edible seed of the prickly water lily (Euryale ferox), an aquatic plant commonly found in freshwater ponds across South and East Asia.
• The plant is easily identifiable by its large, prickly circular leaves, which can exceed a meter in diameter, and its violet and white flowers. The edible seeds have a blackish-brown outer coating, earning them the nickname “Black Diamond.”
• After processing, the seeds are roasted or popped to make a light snack called ‘lava,’ which is widely consumed.
• Makhana is valued for its nutritional richness, being a good source of carbohydrates, protein, and minerals, and has wide applications in food, healthcare, and traditional medicine.
• Bihar is the leading producer of Makhana, accounting for nearly 90% of India’s production. Cultivation is concentrated in nine districts of the Mithilanchal region, including Darbhanga, Madhubani, Purnea, Katihar, Saharsa, Supaul, Araria, Kishanganj, and Sitamarhi, with the first four contributing almost 80% of the state’s output.
• In addition to Bihar, Makhana is cultivated in smaller quantities in Assam, Manipur, West Bengal, Tripura, and Odisha, as well as in countries like Nepal, Bangladesh, China, Japan, and Korea.
• Recognizing its unique regional identity, Mithila Makhana was granted a Geographical Indication (GI) tag in 2022, which is valid for ten years and can be renewed.
• Makhana is typically grown in tropical and subtropical climates and thrives in stagnant water bodies such as ponds, wetlands, ditches, and lakes with water depths of about 4–6 feet.
• The ideal temperature range for cultivation is 20–35°C, with relative humidity between 50–90% and annual rainfall ranging from 100 to 250 cm. Despite being the largest producer, Bihar has faced several challenges in leveraging its dominant position in the global Makhana market.
• The state lacks a robust food processing industry and export infrastructure, as none of its airports have cargo facilities. Cultivation remains highly labor-intensive, resulting in high input costs, and farmers have been slow to adopt high-yield varieties such as Swarna Vaidehi and Sabour Makhana-1 developed by agricultural research institutions.
• To address these challenges and unlock the sector’s potential, the Central Government established the National Makhana Board in 2024, headquartered in Bihar.
• The Board aims to promote production through modern technologies, improve post-harvest management, encourage value addition, and strengthen processing and marketing channels.
• It will also train farmers to become export-oriented, facilitate investment in food processing, and create the necessary infrastructure to enable exports. These efforts are expected to boost production, expand market access, and enhance Bihar’s presence on the global Makhana map

 

 

National Turmeric Board

 

 

• The National Turmeric Board is a government initiative aimed at promoting the growth and development of the turmeric industry in India. It was formally established in January 2025 to strengthen India’s position as a global leader in turmeric production and exports.
• The Board’s headquarters were inaugurated on 29th June 2025 in Nizamabad, Telangana, by Union Home Minister and Minister of Cooperation, Shri Amit Shah.
• The primary objective of the Board is to enhance the production, processing, marketing, and export of turmeric, with special focus on major producing states like Telangana, Maharashtra, and Meghalaya.
• India is the world’s largest producer, consumer, and exporter of turmeric, commanding over 62% of global trade. In the fiscal year 2023–24, India exported 1.62 lakh tonnes of turmeric and turmeric-based products worth USD 226.5 million.
• The Board works to provide leadership on turmeric-related issues, coordinate with the Spices Board and other governmental agencies, and develop a sustainable ecosystem for the industry.
• Its initiatives include supporting farmers with training, promoting modern cultivation and processing techniques, improving market access, and facilitating export infrastructure.
• With the government aiming to achieve USD 1 billion in turmeric exports by 2030, the National Turmeric Board is expected to play a critical role in boosting the sector’s growth, increasing farmer incomes, and establishing India’s dominance in the global turmeric market

 

 

Follow Up Question

 

Mains

 

1."Makhana (Fox Nut) is an important aquatic crop with significant nutritional and economic potential. Discuss its cultivation, challenges, and the role of the National Makhana Board in promoting its growth and export potential in India." (250 words)

 

 

Prelims

 

1.Consider the following statements regarding Makhana (Fox Nut):

1. Bihar accounts for nearly 90% of India’s total Makhana production.

2. Makhana cultivation requires stagnant water bodies like ponds and wetlands with water depth of 4–6 feet.

3. Mithila Makhana has been granted a Geographical Indication (GI) tag.

4. The National Makhana Board has been established to promote production, processing, marketing, and exports of Makhana.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 and 2 only
B. 1, 2 and 3 only
C. 2, 3 and 4 only
D. 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer (D)   Statement 1 is correct: Bihar produces around 90% of India’s Makhana, mostly in the Mithilanchal region. Statement 2 is correct: Makhana is an aquatic crop, cultivated in stagnant water bodies with shallow water depth (4–6 feet). Statement 3 is correct: Mithila Makhana received a GI tag in 2022. Statement 4 is correct: The National Makhana Board was established to enhance production, post-harvest management, marketing, and exports, and to train farmers and develop infrastructure

 

 

How is the jewellery sector coping with U.S. tariffs?

For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance

For Mains Examination: GS III - Economy

Context:

India’s diamond and jewellery sector has been hit due to the U.S. tariffs. While the U.S. has imposed a 50% import duty on India’s cut and polished diamonds, it has imposed a 50-57% duty on studded and non-studded jewellery, upsetting decades of well-set trade. At such a time, the sector wants government intervention which could absorb the shock caused by U.S. tariffs.

 

Read about:

What is a reciprocal tariff?

What is a Tariff?

 

Key takeaways:

 

Why Government Intervention is Needed?

 

• The United States is the biggest market for India’s diamond exports. In 2024–25 alone, India shipped out diamonds worth around ₹46,000 crore and studded gold jewellery worth another ₹23,000 crore.
• The country’s diamond cutting and polishing sector employs roughly 8.2 lakh skilled workers, and the Gems and Jewellery Export Promotion Council (GJEPC) estimates that recent U.S. tariffs could threaten nearly 1.7 lakh of those jobs.
• The problem is particularly acute for small players: about 85% of India’s exporters are Medium and Small Scale Enterprises (MSMEs), who lack the financial strength to withstand such a sudden loss of market access.
• To cope with this crisis, the industry has asked the government for temporary support in the form of policy relaxations, worker aid, and marketing incentives for a period of three to six months. States like Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra are expected to face the sharpest impact

 

Relief Measures Demanded by the Industry

The jewellery exporters have requested a few specific concessions:

• Extension of export timelines: At present, manufacturers importing gold for jewellery exports must ship their finished products within 90 days, failing which a 6% import duty plus 3% GST is levied. With U.S. demand drying up, many exporters cannot meet this deadline. Hence, they seek to extend the obligation period from 90 days to 270 days.

• Permission for SEZs to sell domestically at lower duties: Exporters want Special Economic Zones (SEZs) to be allowed to sell in the domestic market without paying the existing 20% duty on finished goods, as this makes them less competitive than local manufacturers.

• Reverse job work: The sector is also urging the government to let SEZ-based jewellery units manufacture for domestic clients. This would help utilize idle machinery, keep skilled workers employed, and ensure that factories, built over decades, continue running.

The U.S. tariffs are disrupting an industry that has thrived for nearly 50 years. While larger exporters might absorb the shock, MSMEs—the backbone of India’s gem and jewellery trade—are at serious risk. Without immediate relief, many could collapse. According to industry estimates, a government bailout worth about ₹500 crore in incentives and support could stabilize the sector. As GJEPC chairperson Kirit Bhansali emphasizes, with the U.S. accounting for nearly 30% of India’s gem and jewellery exports, urgent intervention is critical for the survival of MSMEs

 

 Follow Up Question

 Mains

1.Enumerate the indirect taxes which have been subsumed in the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India. Also, comment on the revenue implications of the GST introduced in India since July 2017. (UPC CSE GS III 2019)

Prelims

1.The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of ( UPSC 2016)

A. pledges made by the European countries to rehabilitate refugees from the war-affected Middle East

B. plan of action outlined by the countries of the world to combat climate change

C. capital contributed by the member countries in the establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank

D. plan of action outlined by the countries of the world regarding Sustainable Development Goals

 

Answer (B)   Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) are the climate action plans that countries submitted ahead of the 2015 Paris Agreement under the UNFCCC. They outline each country’s efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate change. Once the Paris Agreement came into force, INDCs were converted into Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)