Taking a giant leap for new ethics in Outer Space
The itch to get there first and fast is human. Being competitive is part of the human’s survival instincts.
The urge to plant one’s flag there before the other flag-bearer does is human too. It is part of the human’s political instincts
UPSC EXAM NOTES ANALYSIS:
1. Arctic and Antarctica
The Arctic and Antarctica are two of the most remote and inhospitable places on Earth, but they are also two of the most beautiful and important. Both regions are home to unique wildlife and ecosystems, and they play a vital role in regulating the global climate.
Arctic
The Arctic is an ocean surrounded by land, located at the highest latitudes of the northern hemisphere.
It is bordered by six countries: Canada, the United States (Alaska), Denmark (Greenland), Russia, Norway, and Iceland.
The Arctic is home to a variety of wildlife, including polar bears, walruses, seals, whales, and birds.
The Arctic is also home to indigenous peoples who have lived in the region for thousands of years
Antarctica
Antarctica is a continent surrounded by sea, located in the southern hemisphere. It is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent on Earth.
Antarctica is covered in a thick ice cap, and the average temperature is below freezing year-round.
The only permanent residents of Antarctica are scientists and researchers. Antarctica is home to a variety of wildlife, including penguins, seals, whales, and seabirds
2.Research Stations in Antarctica
Antarctica hosts numerous research stations and field camps operated by various countries for scientific research and exploration. These research stations are primarily focused on studying the unique environment, climate, and ecosystems of the continent. Here are some of the notable research stations in Antarctica:
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McMurdo Station (United States): McMurdo Station is the largest research station in Antarctica and serves as the logistical hub for U.S. Antarctic research activities. It is located on Ross Island and houses various research facilities, including laboratories, dormitories, and storage facilities.
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Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station (United States): This station is situated at the geographic South Pole and is dedicated to astronomy, astrophysics, and atmospheric research. It is known for its iconic South Pole marker.
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Palmer Station (United States): Located on the Antarctic Peninsula, Palmer Station focuses on marine biology, oceanography, and climate research. It is the only U.S. research station on the continent that remains operational year-round.
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Rothera Research Station (United Kingdom): Located on the Antarctic Peninsula, Rothera Station conducts research in various fields, including glaciology, biology, and meteorology. It serves as a base for British Antarctic Survey activities.
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McMurdo Dry Valleys (United States): These valleys in the Antarctic interior are home to several field camps, including Lake Hoare and Lake Fryxell. Scientists study the unique ecosystems and extreme environments of these dry valleys.
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Amundsen-Scott Station (Norway): Situated at the South Pole, this station conducts atmospheric and climate research. It is named after the famous explorers Roald Amundsen and Robert Falcon Scott.
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Concordia Station (France and Italy): Located at Dome C on the Antarctic Plateau, Concordia Station is used for astronomy, glaciology, and climate research. It experiences extreme cold and isolation during the winter.
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Scott Base (New Zealand): This research station on Ross Island is in close proximity to McMurdo Station. It is involved in scientific research, logistics, and support for New Zealand's Antarctic program.
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Davis Station (Australia): Davis Station is located on the coast of East Antarctica and focuses on biology, glaciology, and climate research. It also serves as a logistics hub for Australian Antarctic operations.
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Jang Bogo Station (South Korea): Situated on Terra Nova Bay in the Ross Sea region, this station is South Korea's main Antarctic research facility and conducts research in various scientific disciplines.
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Novolazarevskaya Station (Russia): Operated by Russia, this station is located near the Schirmacher Oasis in East Antarctica and conducts research in glaciology, meteorology, and biology.
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Zhongshan Station (China): China's research station in Antarctica, located on Larsemann Hills in East Antarctica, is involved in a wide range of scientific studies, including geology, atmospheric science, and marine biology.
- Maitri and Bharati (India): India presently has two research stations at Antarctica namely ‘Maitri’ and ‘Bharati’. New station ‘Bharati’ has just been constructed and established in March, 2013. At both the stations, research and investigations are undertaken to understand the Polar processes and phenomenon. Observations and studies are carried out in atmospheric, biological, geological, ecological sciences etc. Maitri station has been in operation since 1989
The Arctic is a vast and remote region, primarily consisting of sea ice and the Arctic Ocean, surrounded by the northernmost regions of several countries. While there are no permanent research stations in the Arctic like those in Antarctica, there are various research outposts, field camps, and icebreakers used for scientific research and exploration. These facilities are usually temporary and may be operated by individual countries, research institutions, or international collaborations. Here are some examples:
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Barrow (Utqiaġvik), Alaska (United States): Located on the northernmost point of Alaska, Barrow serves as a hub for Arctic research in the United States. Scientists study climate change, oceanography, and Arctic ecosystems in this region.
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Svalbard, Norway: Svalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic Ocean, and Longyearbyen is its largest settlement. It hosts various research institutions and is a base for Arctic climate and environmental research.
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Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard (Norway): Ny-Ålesund is a research settlement on Svalbard that accommodates multiple international research stations. Scientists study climate change, polar ecosystems, and atmospheric research here.
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Thule Air Base, Greenland (United States): Thule Air Base, located on Greenland's northwest coast, is used for atmospheric and space research. It has radar and monitoring equipment for tracking space debris.
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Alert, Nunavut (Canada): Alert is a military base in Canada's High Arctic, used for atmospheric research and environmental monitoring. It is one of the northernmost permanently inhabited places on Earth.
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The Polarstern Icebreaker (Germany): The RV Polarstern is a German research icebreaker that conducts multidisciplinary research in the Arctic Ocean, including oceanography, atmospheric studies, and sea-ice research.
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Station Nord (Denmark): Station Nord is a Danish military and research station located in northern Greenland. It supports various scientific studies, including climate research and space observations.
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Eureka Weather Station (Canada): Located on Ellesmere Island in Canada's High Arctic, Eureka is a meteorological research station used for climate and weather monitoring.
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Russian Arctic Research Stations: Russia operates numerous Arctic research stations, including those on remote islands like Severnaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land. These stations conduct research in various fields, including climate, geology, and biology.
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Nordic research stations: A consortium of Nordic countries operates a network of research stations in the Arctic, such as the Finnish Aboa research station and the Swedish Abisko Scientific Research Station.
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Chinese Arctic Research Station (CARS): Located in Norway's Svalbard archipelago, this station is operated by China and focuses on Arctic environmental and climate research.
- Himadri (India): Indian Arctic station ‘Himadri’ is located at Ny Alesund, Spitsbergen Island, Norway and serves as a hub of Indian scientific investigations since 2008.. Also we do not have India has ice-breakers for exploration and research in the above places
While research stations in the Arctic and Antarctica play a crucial role in advancing scientific knowledge, they also face several challenges and potential negative impacts on these sensitive polar environments. Here are some of the challenges associated with research stations in these regions:
Environmental Impact:
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Waste Management: Research stations generate various types of waste, including human waste, hazardous materials, and non-biodegradable waste. Proper waste disposal and management are essential to prevent pollution and damage to the fragile ecosystems.
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Energy Consumption: Many research stations rely on fossil fuels for energy, which can lead to greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to climate change, especially in the Arctic, where temperatures are rising rapidly.
Ecological Disturbance:
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Wildlife Disturbance: Research stations can disrupt local wildlife, especially in Antarctica, where wildlife has not evolved with human presence. Disturbances can include noise, habitat destruction, and contamination.
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Invasive Species: The introduction of non-native species through human activity and supplies can have harmful effects on the local ecosystems. Strict biosecurity measures are required to prevent this.
Climate Change and Melting Ice:
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Climate Feedback: Research activities that involve the burning of fossil fuels for energy or transportation can contribute to climate change. Ironically, the polar regions are the most affected by climate change, leading to more challenges for research stations.
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Infrastructure Stability: The melting of ice and permafrost can destabilize infrastructure, such as buildings and runways, at research stations in both polar regions.
Resource Management:
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Water Usage: In Antarctica, freshwater resources are limited, and research stations must carefully manage water use. Energy-intensive desalination processes are sometimes required to provide fresh water.
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Logistical Challenges: Accessing and supplying research stations in remote polar regions is a logistical challenge, often requiring the use of fossil fuel-powered vehicles or aircraft.
Human Health and Safety:
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Isolation and Mental Health: Long periods of isolation in extreme conditions can lead to mental health challenges for personnel at research stations.
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Cold-Related Health Risks: Exposure to extreme cold temperatures poses health risks, including frostbite and hypothermia.
International Cooperation:
- Geopolitical Tensions: The presence of multiple countries in the polar regions can lead to geopolitical tensions over resource exploitation and territorial claims.
Conservation and Protection:
- Environmental Regulations: Research stations must adhere to strict environmental regulations to protect the pristine environments of the Arctic and Antarctica. Violations can lead to environmental damage and legal repercussions.
The Outer Space Treaty, formally known as the "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies," is an international treaty that forms the foundation of space law. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 19, 1966, and entered into force on October 10, 1967. As of my last knowledge update in September 2021, 110 countries were parties to the treaty.
The Outer Space Treaty consists of several key principles and provisions:
Peaceful Use of Outer Space: The treaty emphasizes that outer space shall be used for peaceful purposes. The Moon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes as well.
Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons: The placement of nuclear weapons or any other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies is prohibited.
Free Exploration: The exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit of all countries, and no country can claim sovereignty over outer space or celestial bodies. Outer space is considered the "province of all mankind."
International Cooperation: Countries are encouraged to engage in international cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space. States are also obligated to provide assistance to astronauts in distress and to return them safely to their home country.
Non-Appropriation: No celestial body, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall be subject to national appropriation by any means. This means that no country can claim ownership of celestial bodies.
Liability for Space Activities: Countries are responsible for national space activities, whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities, and are liable for any damage caused by their space objects.
Preservation of the Space Environment: Countries are obligated to avoid harmful contamination of outer space and celestial bodies and to take measures to prevent the harmful contamination of Earth's environment by space objects.
Notification and Registration: Countries are required to inform the United Nations and the international community about their space activities and to provide information about the orbits of their space objects. There is also a requirement to register space objects.
Efforts are being made to mitigate these challenges by implementing best practices in sustainable research station management, increasing energy efficiency, minimizing waste generation, and conducting research that helps us better understand and address these issues. International cooperation through agreements like the Antarctic Treaty and the Arctic Council also plays a crucial role in regulating and addressing challenges associated with research stations in polar regions
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Practice Mains Questions 1.Discuss the geopolitical significance of the Arctic region in the context of climate change and resource exploitation. What challenges and opportunities does this region present for global governance? 2.Explain the environmental consequences of melting Arctic ice and its impact on global climate systems. How can international cooperation address these challenges? 3.Evaluate the importance of the Antarctic Treaty System in preserving Antarctica as a region dedicated to peace and science. Discuss its key provisions and challenges to its implementation. |
