WORLD WAR I
1. Context
One of the most immediate and obvious changes that WWI brought about was the collapse of longstanding empires. But what long-term impact did the “balkanisation” of empires have on regional and global stability?
2. Preface about World War I
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- World War I is often regarded as the first truly global conflict, leaving a profound impact on nations across the globe. It officially came to an end on November 11, 1918, when an armistice was signed at 11 a.m., symbolically marking the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month.
- The war significantly altered the global balance of power, triggering the downfall of several major empires, including the Ottoman Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Romanov dynasty in Russia.
- The onset of World War I also marked the conclusion of what is often referred to as the ‘Hundred Years’ Peace,’ a period of relative stability in Europe that began after the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
- While conflicts like the Crimean War (1853–1856) did take place during this era, they were relatively localized and did not compare in magnitude or global reach to the devastation brought by World War I
3. Beginning of World War I
- The First World War was triggered on June 28, 1914, when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist.
- This event occurred against the backdrop of rising tensions in the Balkans, where Serbia had expanded its territory through the Balkan Wars of 1912–13, alarming Austria-Hungary. One month after the assassination, Austria-Hungary, with Germany's support, declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Russia, in turn, came to Serbia's defense.
- Historically, the Balkans had been under Ottoman control, stretching from Anatolia into predominantly Christian areas near Austria-Hungary. This region eventually gave birth to the term “balkanisation,” referring to the fragmentation of larger political entities into smaller, often hostile, parts.
- The conclusion of World War I exemplified this idea, as empires like the Ottoman Empire disintegrated, paving the way for the rise of smaller nation-states from their remnants.
- Although called a world war, the conflict was largely centered in Europe and fueled by rivalries among major powers such as Britain—then a dominant global empire—France with its colonial reach, Austria-Hungary, Germany's growing influence, and Russia. The war marked a turning point: despite being a conflict among European powers, it signaled the start of Europe's diminishing dominance.
- Following the war, two non-European powers began to rise. The United States gained prominence in the West, while the Soviet Union emerged in the East, having replaced the Russian Romanov Empire. These two nations would later become adversaries in the Cold War, which began shortly after the Second World War—just three decades after World War I ended
4. Deadly warfare
- The primary battlegrounds of the First World War were located in Europe. Some of the most well-known clashes—such as those at Ypres, the Somme, and Verdun—occurred along the Western Front, which extended from the Belgian coastline, through northern France, and down to the Swiss border.
- This front marked the farthest western point of Germany’s military campaign and involved the Central Powers, namely Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. Their advance was resisted by the Allied forces, particularly Britain and France, while Russia applied pressure from the east.
- The Western Front became infamous for its defining characteristic: trench warfare. Soldiers on both sides dug extensive trench networks, and these fortifications made forward movement extremely difficult. As a result, battles often turned into prolonged stalemates with little territorial gain.
- From a technological standpoint, World War I did not witness significant breakthroughs in warfare tactics. Aircraft played only a minor role and had not yet become a central force on the battlefield.
- Tanks, introduced by the British in 1916 to break through entrenched positions, were still in their infancy and had limited impact. This is evident in the static nature of the Western Front, which remained largely unchanged throughout the war, underscoring how much the conflict was dominated by the harsh realities of trench warfare
5. Human lives loss
- Although the Allied Powers—mainly Britain and France—eventually emerged victorious in World War I against the Central Powers, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire, not all their campaigns were successful.
- One notable setback was the Gallipoli campaign, waged between February 1915 and January 1916, where the Allies failed in their attempt to seize control of the Dardanelles Strait from the Ottomans.
- Due to the limited advancements in medical science at the time, many young soldiers perished on the battlefield from infections caused by untreated injuries. It’s important to note that penicillin, a life-saving antibiotic, was only discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928—years after the war had ended.
- The horrors and heavy loss of life deeply affected a generation of young men and inspired the poignant works of war poets such as Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon, and Rupert Brooke. Their writings express the deep emotional and psychological trauma now recognized as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
- India played a significant role in the war by sending over a million troops to fight in various regions, including Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. The India Gate in New Delhi stands as a memorial honoring the Indian soldiers who laid down their lives in these largely European conflicts
6. War came to an end
- In November 1917, a year before the conclusion of World War I, two pivotal developments occurred just days apart that would significantly shape the post-war global landscape. On November 7, the Bolshevik Revolution led to the downfall of the Romanov dynasty, ending centuries of imperial rule in Russia and laying the foundation for the formation of the Soviet Union.
- A few days earlier, on November 2, the Balfour Declaration was issued by Britain, expressing support for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. This declaration eventually led to the founding of the state of Israel in May 1948, following World War II. Interestingly, the Soviet Union was among the earliest nations to recognize the newly created Israeli state.
- The Bolsheviks’ rise to power had immediate consequences, one of which was Russia's withdrawal from World War I. This was formalized through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. Meanwhile, the United States, which had entered the war later in 1917, played a decisive role in shaping the war’s conclusion and the peace process that followed.
- Notably, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson left a strong mark on the 1919 Treaty of Versailles with his vision for a peaceful world order, encapsulated in his famous “Fourteen Points.”
7. World War I to World War II
- Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, often referred to as the "War Guilt" clause, placed full responsibility for the outbreak of World War I on the Central Powers. Among the harshest outcomes of the treaty was the imposition of heavy war reparations on Germany.
- Not only was Germany defeated, but it was also made to shoulder the financial burden of the conflict, which deeply wounded national pride.
- This humiliation and economic strain contributed significantly to the instability of the Weimar Republic, established in Germany after the war.
- The Weimar regime eventually collapsed, paving the way for Adolf Hitler’s rise to power in 1933 and the eventual outbreak of World War II in 1939.
- The shortcomings of the Versailles Treaty, which was intended to secure lasting peace, were sharply criticized by British economist John Maynard Keynes, who had attended the peace negotiations. In his influential book The Economic Consequences of the Peace, Keynes warned that the punitive terms of the treaty would lead to future conflict.
8. Way forward
Following the end of the First World War, the League of Nations was formed and implemented a system of mandates to govern former German and Ottoman territories. In the Middle East, this system placed Syria and Lebanon under French control, while Iraq and Palestine came under British administration. These arrangements, designed to manage the remnants of the collapsed Ottoman Empire, were fragile and often unstable. The failure of these political solutions is one of the reasons why another global war erupted just over twenty years later
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For Prelims: Treaty of Versailles, League of Nations, Balfour Declaration, Bolshevik Revolution
For Mains: GS I - World History
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Source: The Hindu
