RESILIENT AND PROSPEROUS CITIES IN INDIA

The World Bank categorizes urban flooding into three main types:

• (a) Pluvial Flooding: This type of flooding happens when intense rainfall exceeds the soil’s absorption capacity and overwhelms urban drainage systems, resulting in surface water accumulation. The World Bank notes that urbanisation exacerbates this problem by increasing non-permeable surfaces and adding channels that amplify peak water flow during floods.
• (b) Coastal Flooding: As explained by the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), this occurs primarily due to storm surges and strong winds, especially when they coincide with high tides. These surges are typically caused by rising sea levels due to low atmospheric pressure.
• (c) Fluvial Flooding: This form of flooding results when rivers overflow their banks because of heavy rainfall or melting snow. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) describes it as a sudden rise in water levels, which then recede gradually. The threat becomes serious when human settlements encroach upon floodplains, increasing vulnerability.

Apart from these, urban areas also frequently experience flash floods, which are sudden and highly localized events that occur within a short time frame—typically between three to six hours. In India, these are often triggered by cloudbursts, which involve extremely intense rainfall over a short period. Additionally, states in the Himalayan region face growing risks from glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), caused by the rising number of glacial lakes formed from rapidly melting glaciers

4. Urban Local Bodies (ULB)

“In order for cities to invest in climate resilience and undertake mitigation and adaptation measures, they must have the authority and independence to make and execute decisions,” stated Auguste Tano Kouame, the World Bank’s Country Director for India, during a press briefing. He added that while some argue this autonomy hinges on the complete enforcement of the 74th Constitutional Amendment, others hold differing views.

• The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act (1992) accorded constitutional recognition to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), aiming to empower them and promote decentralized governance. However, as of 2022, audits show that several states are yet to implement its provisions in full.

• India’s journey in urban governance began with the establishment of its first municipal corporation in Madras (now Chennai) in 1687, followed by similar institutions in Bombay and Calcutta. In 1882, Lord Ripon, widely regarded as the father of local self-government in India, laid the groundwork for democratic urban governance through his landmark resolution.

• Urban Local Bodies—including Municipal Corporations, Municipalities, and Nagar Panchayats—form the core of city-level governance. These institutions serve as the primary interface between the government and urban residents, tasked with providing essential services like sanitation, waste management, and town planning.

• Part IX-A of the Constitution outlines the structure, functions, and powers of these bodies, authorizing them to manage a broad spectrum of urban services such as land use planning, public health, and infrastructure.

• The 12th Schedule of the Constitution lists 18 specific functions delegated to ULBs. It also mandates regular elections every five years, with councillors elected from defined local wards. While the mayor holds a ceremonial position, administrative control largely rests with the municipal commissioner, typically an officer appointed by the state.

• Despite their wide-ranging responsibilities, many municipal bodies struggle with insufficient funding, limited manpower, and growing urban challenges, stretching their capacities across functions from garbage collection to city infrastructure.

• In response to these constraints, the Union Budget 2025–26 proposed the creation of a ₹1 lakh crore Urban Challenge Fund. This initiative aims to promote urban growth through projects such as ‘Cities as Growth Hubs,’ creative redevelopment efforts, and enhanced water and sanitation infrastructure

 5. What is the urban heat island effect?

• The urban heat island (UHI) effect refers to the phenomenon where urban areas experience significantly higher temperatures than their surrounding rural regions. This temperature difference arises primarily due to human activities and the way cities are built.
• In urban settings, natural landscapes like forests, wetlands, and open soil are replaced with concrete, asphalt, and buildings. These artificial surfaces absorb and retain heat from the sun during the day and release it slowly at night, causing cities to remain warmer for longer periods.
• In contrast, rural areas with more vegetation and open land tend to cool down more quickly after sunset because plants and soil do not store as much heat.
• Several factors contribute to the UHI effect. One major cause is the lack of greenery and open spaces in cities. Trees and vegetation help cool the air through a process called transpiration, where they release water vapor.
• When greenery is replaced by impermeable surfaces, this cooling effect is lost. Additionally, high-density buildings trap heat and reduce air circulation, further intensifying the warmth.
• Human activities such as the use of air conditioners, vehicles, factories, and lighting also release heat into the environment, adding to the overall temperature. The widespread use of dark-colored roofing and pavement materials, which absorb more heat than lighter surfaces, further exacerbates the problem.
• The UHI effect can have serious consequences. It increases the energy demand for cooling, especially during summer, leading to higher electricity consumption and emissions.
• It also worsens air pollution and can negatively impact public health, particularly for vulnerable groups like the elderly and children. During heatwaves, the elevated temperatures in urban areas can result in a higher number of heat-related illnesses and fatalities.
• To mitigate the UHI effect, strategies such as increasing urban green cover, using reflective or "cool" roofing materials, improving building designs, and enhancing city ventilation through proper planning are being promoted globally

6.10-Point City Climate Action Plan

Assess Risk & Plan for Climate Action

1. Local climate and disaster risk assessment, Monitoring and Evaluation