PROTOTYPE FAST BREEDER REACTOR

2. Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) and India's Nuclear Power Programme

The PFBR is a crucial component of India's nuclear power programme, designed to generate more nuclear fuel than it consumes. Its recent core-loading event is being hailed as a significant milestone, marking the beginning of stage II in India's three-stage nuclear power strategy.

1. In the initial stage, India utilized Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and natural uranium-238 (U-238) as the fissile material. Neutrons released during nuclear fission reactions in PHWRs are slowed down by heavy water (deuterium) and captured by U-238 and U-235 nuclei, producing energy and plutonium-239 (Pu-239).
2. Stage II involves the use of Pu-239, produced in stage I, along with U-238 in the PFBR to generate energy, U-233, and more Pu-239. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) established Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam, Ltd. (BHAVINI) in 2003 to implement stage II.
3. In the final stage, Pu-239 will be combined with thorium-232 (Th-232) in reactors to produce energy and U-233. This stage capitalizes on India's significant thorium reserves, making the country self-sufficient in nuclear energy. The three-stage programme, conceived by Homi J. Bhabha, aims to utilize India's abundant thorium resources effectively.

3. Reasons for Delay in PFBR Implementation

• The PFBR project in India has encountered significant delays, cost overruns, and criticism due to various factors.
• The FBTR, serving as a precursor to the PFBR, faced challenges due to sanctions imposed after India's nuclear tests. The use of mixed carbide fuel, instead of enriched uranium originally planned, affected power output and operational conditions, leading to alterations in the project's trajectory.
• The PFBR, designed by the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam, faced hurdles related to design complexities and technological advancements. Original projections for cost (₹3,492 crore) and completion (2010) were overshadowed by unforeseen technical difficulties and changing operational requirements.
• The project witnessed substantial cost escalations, with the initial estimate ballooning to ₹6,800 crore by 2019. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) sought additional funds and extended deadlines multiple times, leading to concerns about financial mismanagement and lack of effective oversight.
• An audit by the Comptroller and Auditor General in 2014 revealed procurement inefficiencies, particularly in the reliance on the Nuclear Power Corporation of India, Ltd. (NPCIL) for PFBR components. Delays in procurement processes, with a median delay of 158 days per order, contributed to project setbacks.
• Technical challenges, including those related to reactor coolant, further hindered progress, necessitating adjustments and refinements in the project timeline.

4. Working Principle of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR)

The PFBR operates on the principle of a fast breeder reactor, designed to generate more fissile material than it consumes.

Fissile Material Production

• Utilization of Pu-239: Pu-239, produced as a byproduct in Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), is combined with additional U-238 to create a mixed oxide fuel.
• Breeder Blanket: The mixed oxide fuel is loaded into the reactor core along with a breeder blanket. This blanket is a material that reacts with the fission products in the core to produce more Pu-239.

• Fast Neutron Reactions: Unlike in thermal reactors where neutrons are slowed down, in a fast breeder reactor like PFBR, neutrons are not moderated. This allows them to trigger specific fission reactions more efficiently.

Coolant System

• Liquid Sodium Coolant: PFBR utilizes liquid sodium, a highly reactive substance, as a coolant in two circuits.
• Coolant Circulation: The first circuit carries coolant into the reactor core, where it absorbs heat and radioactivity. The heated coolant then flows through heat exchangers, transferring heat to the secondary coolant circuit.
• Electricity Generation: In the secondary circuit, heat from the coolant is utilized to generate electricity using generators.

Challenges and Real-world Issues

• Operational Challenges: Former IGCAR scientist R.D. Kale highlighted challenges in implementing the coolant system efficiently. For instance, preheating the reactor vessel took much longer than anticipated, posing operational hurdles.

5. Role of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)

Amidst the delays and challenges faced by traditional nuclear reactor projects like the PFBR, Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) emerge as a potential solution offering several advantages.

• SMRs are characterized by their smaller size and modular design, with a maximum capacity of 300 MW. These reactors require less land and can incorporate advanced safety features, making them more adaptable to diverse geographical locations and operational requirements.
• Countries are exploring SMRs as complementary facilities to conventional reactors due to their ability to be installed at reduced cost and time. SMRs can leverage existing infrastructure in brownfield sites, facilitating their integration into existing energy networks more seamlessly.
• SMRs offer the advantage of being compatible with low-enriched uranium, which can be imported by India from the U.S. through established agreements. This allows for greater flexibility in fuel procurement and reduces dependency on domestic uranium sources.
• Realizing the full potential of SMRs necessitates regulatory amendments to accommodate private sector participation under the oversight of the Atomic Energy Regulatory Body (AERB). This would entail ensuring compliance with international safeguards for nuclear fuel and waste management while maintaining control under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).

6. Value of Stage II in India's Nuclear Energy Program

Stage II of India's nuclear power program, marked by the implementation of Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) such as the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR), holds significant value despite challenges and delays:

Capacity Expansion and Energy Security

The PFBR, with a capacity of 500 MWe, represents a crucial step towards expanding India's nuclear energy capacity. The proposed construction of four additional FBRs, each with a capacity of 600 MWe, underscores the importance of stage II in bolstering energy security and meeting growing electricity demands.

Commercial Viability and Economic Considerations

Despite delays and cost overruns, commercializing stage II technologies such as FBRs is imperative for ensuring the economic viability of nuclear power generation. While nuclear electricity currently costs around ₹4/kWh, advancements in stage II technologies aim to enhance cost-efficiency and competitiveness vis-à-vis alternative energy sources.

Environmental Sustainability and Decarbonization

The global push towards decarbonization and reducing reliance on fossil fuels underscores the relevance of nuclear power as a low-carbon energy source. With renewable energy sources gaining momentum, stage II technologies offer a viable complement to India's renewable energy sector, contributing to environmental sustainability and mitigating climate change impacts.

Geopolitical Imperatives and Energy Independence

India's efforts to diversify its energy mix and reduce dependence on imported fossil fuels align with geopolitical imperatives and national interests. By advancing stage II technologies, India aims to strengthen its energy independence and reduce vulnerability to international energy market fluctuations.

7. Challenges of Stage II in India's Nuclear Energy Program

While stage II of India's nuclear energy program holds promise, it also faces several significant challenges

Technological Complexity and Safety Concerns

Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) pose unique technological challenges compared to other reactor designs. Their complex operations and handling requirements demand stringent safety measures. However, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has encountered criticism for its perceived heavy-handed response to safety concerns, leading to public scepticism and apprehension.

Regulatory Oversight and Independence

The current regulatory framework for India's civilian nuclear program, overseen by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), has faced criticism for lacking independence. The AERB's reporting structure ultimately leads back to the DAE secretary, raising concerns about conflicts of interest and transparency. Calls for establishing an independent statutory atomic regulator have been made, echoing recommendations by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 2015.

Regulatory Reforms and Legislation

Efforts to reform the regulatory framework through initiatives like the Nuclear Safety Regulatory Authority (NSRA) Bill have faced challenges. While proposed as a replacement for the AERB, the NSRA Bill drew criticism for potentially granting excessive control to the Union government over the regulatory body's composition, undermining its independence and effectiveness.

Management of Radioactive Byproducts

The thorium fuel cycle, integral to stage II technologies, produces various radioactive isotopes such as caesium-137, actinium-227, radium-224, radium-228, and thorium-230. Managing and safely storing these radioactive byproducts pose significant technical and logistical challenges, requiring robust waste management protocols and infrastructure.