NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
1. Context
The attacks by the US on Iran’s three nuclear sites – Natanz, Isfahan and Fordow – have triggered numerous concerns, including the risk of radiation leaks, with the UN’s nuclear watchdog saying that craters caused by ground-penetrating US bombs were visible at Fordow.
2. Nuclear Technology
- Nuclear technology stands out as a transformative and often debated advancement in the modern era. It centers on manipulating atomic nuclei through two main processes: nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
- In nuclear fission, a large atomic nucleus breaks apart into smaller nuclei, frequently accompanied by radioactive decay, where unstable heavy elements gradually transform into lighter ones.
- Conversely, nuclear fusion involves the combination of two lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, often described as a constructive or generative reaction.
- Both fission and fusion release tremendous amounts of energy. Although nuclear fusion is still largely confined to experimental research, nuclear fission has been widely utilized since its discovery in 1938 by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann.
- Its earliest and most impactful use was in the development of nuclear weapons by the United States under the Manhattan Project, employing elements like uranium and plutonium.
- These weapons were deployed during the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, marking the onset of what came to be known as the atomic or nuclear age
3. Nuclear technology in various sectors
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The catastrophic devastation experienced by Japan during World War II spurred a global movement to channel nuclear technology toward peaceful and beneficial uses. In today’s world, nuclear technology finds itself at a pivotal juncture—while it offers significant advantages, concerns over its weaponization and potential misuse remain pressing. The major areas where nuclear technology proves beneficial include:
- Energy and industrial use – Nuclear energy is a dependable, long-term source of electricity that contributes to energy security while maintaining a low carbon footprint. As per the International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA) 2024 report, nuclear power capacity worldwide reached 392 gigawatts (GW) by the end of 2023, generated through nearly 440 operational reactors. Beyond electricity, nuclear power supports various industrial activities, including district heating systems and seawater desalination.
- Agriculture and food production – Nuclear techniques contribute to enhanced agricultural productivity and food security. They are used for the early diagnosis of animal diseases, better soil and water resource management, and environmentally sustainable pest control strategies like the Sterile Insect Technique. Additionally, crop irradiation helps improve resistance to diseases and ensures the safety of food products.
- Healthcare advancements – The use of nuclear science in medicine has significantly strengthened healthcare systems. Tools like PET (Positron Emission Tomography) and SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography) are pivotal for medical imaging, while radiotherapy and radioisotope therapies are essential for targeted cancer treatment and management.
- Defense and strategic balance – In the defense domain, nuclear capabilities are key to deterrence strategies, supporting geopolitical stability and acting as a tool for maintaining strategic balance among nations. Their very existence reduces the chances of full-scale or nuclear wars due to the principle of mutually assured destruction.
- Environmental and climate impact – Due to its low greenhouse gas emissions, nuclear energy is recognized as an important contributor to global climate objectives. Acknowledging this, 22 countries (later rising to 31) signed a declaration at COP 28 to triple nuclear energy production by 2050. Moreover, nuclear power delivers high energy output with minimal land usage compared to several other renewable sources
4. International regulatory framework
- Global efforts to regulate nuclear technology began in 1957 with the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which serves as a platform for promoting the peaceful application of nuclear science and technology.
- A major milestone followed in 1970 with the implementation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), which is centered around three key pillars: preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, encouraging nuclear disarmament, and fostering the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
- Under the NPT, Non-Nuclear Weapon States (NNWS) are assured the right to pursue nuclear energy for peaceful uses, provided they refrain from developing or acquiring nuclear arms.
- Another significant international agreement is the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), adopted in 1996, which prohibits all nuclear explosions across all environments, whether for civilian or military purposes.
- Further strengthening the legal framework, the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons came into force in 2021. It is the first legally binding international treaty to comprehensively ban nuclear weapons, covering their development, testing, production, acquisition, stockpiling, and use, including any threats of use.
- Other important non-proliferation mechanisms include the Zangger Committee—also known as the NPT Exporters Committee—which maintains a ‘trigger list’ of sensitive nuclear materials requiring safeguards, and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), formed in 1975. The NSG is a consortium of nuclear-exporting nations working together to curb nuclear proliferation by regulating the export of nuclear-related materials and technologies
5. India's nuclear program
- India launched its nuclear energy programme in 1954 with a distinctive three-phase plan tailored to maximize the efficient use of its limited uranium resources and abundant thorium deposits through progressive nuclear technologies.
- The programme's first phase relies on Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), which operate on natural uranium. The second phase introduces Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs), using plutonium and uranium-238 derived from reprocessed spent fuel.
- The final phase envisions advanced nuclear reactors that will primarily utilize thorium, aiming to establish long-term energy independence for the country.
- India has successfully commercialized the first phase with operational PHWRs. The second phase was officially launched in 2024 with the commissioning of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu. This reactor is expected to use a combination of thorium and uranium, tapping into India's substantial thorium reserves.
- In the Union Budget 2025–26, the government unveiled the ‘Nuclear Energy Mission for Viksit Bharat’ and allocated ₹20,000 crore towards its implementation. A key focus of the mission is the development of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), which are intended to help the country reach its ambitious target of 100 GW nuclear power capacity by 2047 in a more secure and environmentally sustainable manner.
- To advance this goal, the government is fostering partnerships with the private sector and strengthening international civil nuclear cooperation with nations like the United States, Russia, and France.
6. Regulation of Nuclear Technology in India
- India has put in place a robust legal and institutional structure to oversee the use of nuclear technology. As per the Indian Constitution, 'atomic energy' is listed under the Union List, granting the central government sole authority to legislate in this domain.
- The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was set up in 1954 and functions under the supervision of the Atomic Energy Commission, which serves as the principal policymaking body for nuclear affairs in the country.
- To further solidify regulatory control, the Atomic Energy Act of 1962 replaced its 1957 predecessor. This legislation empowers the central government to oversee all aspects of atomic energy, including its production, development, and disposal.
- The Act also authorizes the government to formulate rules and establish agencies for its effective implementation.
- Using these legislative powers, the government has enacted regulations focusing on radiation safety and nuclear waste disposal. It also created the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), which is responsible for monitoring and ensuring nuclear safety standards across the country.
- Additionally, the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) handles the planning, building, and operation of nuclear power stations. Recognizing the risks involved in nuclear activities, the government passed the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act in 2010. This law enforces strict liability on nuclear operators, holding them accountable for any damage caused, irrespective of fault
7. Way forward
While nuclear technology is often praised for being a clean energy source with multiple advantages, it also presents several critical challenges. Incidents such as the Chernobyl and Fukushima disasters highlight the importance of maintaining rigorous safety standards. Additionally, issues like health hazards from uranium mining and the long-term management of radioactive waste continue to pose serious concerns.
In countries like India, the application of nuclear technology in areas such as agriculture and healthcare is still in its early stages and demands greater investment in research and innovation. However, with the implementation of well-framed policies, robust safety mechanisms, and international collaboration, nuclear energy can be effectively utilized to address global energy needs and contribute to scientific and technological advancement in a responsible and sustainable way.
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Previous Year Questions 1. To meet its rapidly growing energy demand, some opine that India should pursue research and development on thorium as the future fuel of nuclear energy. In this on text, what advantage, does thorium hold over uranium? (UPSC 2012)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Which among the following has the world’s largest reserves of Uranium? (UPSC 2009) (a) Australia Answers: 1-D, 2-A |
Source: Indianexpress
