MARITIME RED SEA ROUTE
1. Context
- The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor announced at the G20 Summit harkens to an ancient trade route between the subcontinent and the Roman Empire.
- The existence of this trade, which peaked in the early centuries of the common era, has been known for long; however, evidence of its scale eclipsing the more romanticised overland Silk Road has only recently emerged strongly.
2. About the ancient Red Sea trade route
- For years, it was thought that Roman merchants were the only ones trading with India.
- However, recent evidence shows that Indian merchants and shipowners were also involved in this trade.
- The scale of this trade was massive. According to the latest estimates, custom taxes on the Red Sea trade with India, Persia, and Ethiopia may have generated as much as one-third of the income of the Roman exchequer.
- The principal source for this figure is the Muziris Papyrus, a document that details the purchase of goods from an Indian merchant by an Egyptian financier.
- The Papyrus gives precise details of one particular cargo sent to the Egyptian port of Berenike from Muziris on the coast of Kerala.
- The total value of the goods was 131 talents, which is equivalent to the price of 2,400 acres of farmland in Egypt or a premium estate in central Italy.
Image Source: Wikipedia3. Roman Empire earnings from this trade
- According to the Muziris Papyrus, the import tax paid on the cargo of almost nine million sesterces was over two million sesterces.
- Working up from these figures, it is estimated that Indian imports into Egypt were worth probably over a billion sesterces per annum, from which the tax authorities of the Roman Empire were creaming off no less than 270 million.
- These vast revenues surpassed those of entire subject countries Julius Caesar imposed a tribute of 40 million sesterces after his conquests in Gaul while the vital Rhineland frontier was defended by eight legions at an annual cost of 88 million sesterces.
4. Goods Traded on the Ancient Red Sea Route
4.1. Roman Imports from India
Luxuries: The Roman Empire had a significant appetite for luxury items from India. This included products like malabathrum, a plant whose leaves were used to create perfume, as well as ivory, pearls, and precious gemstones. Notably, Pompeii contained a shop dedicated solely to ivory products, showcasing the demand for such exotic materials.
Wild Animals: There was a demand for "exotic" goods, including live animals like elephants and tigers from India.
Spices: Pepper was India's major export to Rome. Large quantities of pepper have been discovered in excavations at Berenike, often stored in torpedo-shaped pottery jars, each weighing more than 10 kg. By the end of the first century CE, Indian pepper had become readily available, although it remained an expensive treat. Pepper was a common ingredient in Roman cuisine, with approximately 80 per cent of the recipes in the Roman cookbook of Apicius including it.
4.2. Roman Exports to India
- The flow of goods from Rome to India was more limited. Pliny the Elder noted that gold was a significant export to India, creating a trade imbalance that posed challenges for the Roman economy.
- However, there are records indicating that Indians developed a taste for Roman wine.
- Some limited trade also involved items like olive oil and Garum, an ancient Roman fermented fish paste, which could be likened to contemporary condiments like Tabasco or garam masala.
5. Trade on the Route Before the Common Era
- Evidence of trade along this route dates back to ancient times, including during the time of Meluha, the Indus Valley Civilization (approximately 3300-1300 BCE).
- However, this early trade appears to have been more localized and coastal, involving smaller quantities of goods.
- In Roman times, this trade expanded significantly, with large cargo ships directly connecting the Indian subcontinent to the Roman Empire.
- The Romans played a crucial role in "industrializing" this trade, driven by their economic capacity to purchase the luxury items that India offered.
- The trade flourished, particularly in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, after the Romans conquered Egypt, which opened up the route to adventurous Roman merchants.
6. Organization of the Trade and Voyage Duration
- The trade along the ancient Red Sea route was highly organized. Merchants in Kerala and shippers in Alexandria engaged in formal contracts.
- Goods were transported in containers, similar to modern shipping practices, where a container would be booked and filled with specific products.
- There are even references to insurance, highlighting the sophistication of this trade network.
- Indian traders recognized the monsoon winds, which blew in different directions in winter and summer due to the heating of the Tibetan Plateau.
- By timing their voyages correctly, they could take advantage of these winds. The journey from India to Egypt, or vice versa, could be completed in about six to eight weeks with the winds behind them.
- However, travellers had to wait for a few months for the winds to change direction.
7. Roles of Indians in the Red Sea Trade
Interest in Seafaring: Indian dynasties displayed a keen interest in seafaring, evident in ancient artwork like the depictions of large double-masted ships in Ajanta caves. Additionally, ships were common symbols of early Indian coins, such as those from the Satavahanas dynasty.
Prominent Role of Indian Sailors: Indian sailors played a prominent role in the Red Sea trade. Graffiti left by Indian sailors, often Gujaratis from Barigaza (modern-day Bharuch), was discovered in the Hoq caves on Socotra Island, a vital stopover at the Gulf of Aden's mouth. These inscriptions, dating from the second to the fifth century CE, were primarily in the Indian Brahmi script, with names like "Vishnu, son of the merchant Ganja" and "Skandabhuti, the Sea Captain." They also featured images of ships, religious symbols, and prayers to deities like Krishna and Radha.
Ownership of Shipping: While historical records suggest that much of the shipping departing from Egyptian Red Sea ports may have been owned by Alexandrian businessmen, it's plausible that Indian merchants and ship owners also had a significant stake in this trade due to the substantial Indian presence in the maritime activities of the period.
8. Comparison with the Silk Road
Silk Road vs. Red Sea Route: The Red Sea trade route, connecting the Indian subcontinent with the Roman Empire through the Red Sea, differs significantly from the concept of the Silk Road. While the Silk Road has gained popularity in modern times, it was entirely unknown in ancient or medieval times. The term "Silk Road" was coined in the late 19th century by Baron von Richthofen, primarily for a proposed railway route.
Historical Accuracy of Silk Road: There is no ancient record, whether from Chinese or Western sources, that mentions the existence of the Silk Road. Even Marco Polo, often associated with this route, never mentions it. The idea of the Silk Road gained prominence only in the 1980s-90s, largely due to its romantic appeal.
Inaccuracy of Silk Road Focus: The Silk Road concept is mostly inaccurate for the Roman period. Instead, during this time, there is no evidence of direct contact or trade between China and Europe. Chinese silk, for example, likely reached Rome through ports in India, travelling overland through Kushana territory in northern India to reach Gujarat and the mouth of the Indus.
9. Emerging Understanding of Indo-Roman Trade
New Evidence and Underplayed History: The recent emergence of a deeper understanding of Indo-Roman trade is attributed in part to the discovery of new archaeological evidence in places like Muziris in Kerala and Berenike in Egypt. Additionally, India has sometimes underplayed its significance as a centre of trade and ideas in the early classical period.
The Significance of the 1st and 2nd Centuries CE: The 1st and 2nd centuries CE represent an intriguing period when India played a vital role in exporting its ideas and luxury goods to the Roman world. This era witnessed the spread of Buddhism to China and the provision of luxury items to Rome. While scholars like Himanshu Prabha Ray have made valuable contributions to this field, there is a need to make their findings more accessible to a wider audience.
10. The Way Forward
- The recent revelations about India's central role in this ancient trade route have opened up numerous questions for exploration.
- For instance, the influence of Buddhist monasticism in India on the development of Christian monasticism in the late Roman period remains a topic of investigation.
- As more information comes to light, researchers can delve further into the connections and impacts of this extensive East-West trade network, shedding new light on the history of these two interconnected worlds.
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For Prelims: India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor, G20, Roman Empire, Silk Road, ancient Red Sea trade route, Muziris Papyrus, Indus Valley Civilization, Red Sea, Egypt, Tibetan Plateau, Ajanta caves, Satavahanas dynasty, Gulf of Aden, Buddhism,
For Mains:
1. Discuss the significance of the Maritime Red Sea Route in connecting the Indian subcontinent with the Roman Empire. How has recent evidence reshaped our understanding of this trade route compared to the Silk Road? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club. 2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: C
2. In which one of the following groups are all the four countries members of G20?
(UPSC 2020)
A. Argentina, Mexico, South Africa and Turkey
B. Australia, Canada, Malaysia and New Zealand
C. Brazil, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Vietnam
D. Indonesia, Japan, Singapore and South Korea
Answer: A
3. Read the statements (A) and (R) and choose the correct option. (CTET 2022)
Assertion (A): The Roman empire carried out trades with South India.
Reason (R): Roman gold coins have been found in South India.
A. Both (A) and (R) are correct and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both (A) and (R) are correct and R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
D. (A) is false but (R) is true.
Answer: A
4. Who was the first emperor of the Roman Empire? (ACC 122 CGAT 2020)
A. Tiberius B. Mark Antony C. William Shakespeare D. Augustus
Answer: D
5. Comprehension (SSC CGL Tier 2 2020)
Directions:
Read the passage and answer the questions that follow.
The Roman Empire covered a vast stretch of territory that included most of Europe as we know it today and a large part of the Fertile Crescent and North Africa. The Roman Empire embraced a wealth of local cultures and languages; that women had a stronger legal position then than they do in many countries today; but also that much of the economy was run on slave labour, denying freedom to substantial numbers of persons. From the fifth century onwards, the empire fell apart in the west but remained intact and exceptionally prosperous in its eastern half. Roman historians have a rich collection of sources to go on, which we can broadly divide into three groups: (a) texts, (b) documents and (c) material remains. Textual sources include letters, speeches, sermons, laws, and histories of the period written by contemporaries. These were usually called ‘Annals’ because the narrative was constructed on a year-by-year basis. Documentary sources include mainly inscriptions and papyri. Inscriptions were usually cut on stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and Latin. The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce sheets of writing material that was very widely used in everyday life. Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters and official documents survive ‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who are called ‘papyrologists’. Material remains include a very wide assortment of items that mainly archaeologists discover (for example, through excavation and field survey), for example, buildings, monuments and other kinds of structures, pottery, coins, mosaics, even entire landscapes. Each of these sources can only tell us just so much about the past, and combining them can be a fruitful exercise, but how well this is done depends on the historian’s skill! Which of these statements is NOT true?
A. Archaeologists make discoveries through excavations.
B. Inscriptions were carved in Greek and Latin
C. The Roman empire flourished longer in the west.
D. Texts, documents and material remains were the main sources for the historians
Answer: C
6. In the first century AD, which among the following was not a major item of Indian exports to Rome? (CDS GK 2018)
A. Pepper B. Spikenard C. Tortoiseshell D. Nutmeg
Answer: D
7. Pepper was as valued in Roman Empire that as it was called (CTET 2013)
A. Black magic B. Black charm C. Black stone D. Black gold
Answer: D
8. In the middle of the first century BC, under ________, a high-born military commander, the ‘Roman Empire’ was extended to present-day Britain and Germany. (SSC JE CE 2017)
A. Alexander B. Julius Caesar C. Xerxes D. Caligula
Answer: B
9. Comprehension
Direction: Read the passage carefully and select the best answer to each question out of the given four alternatives.
The Silk Road was a network of trade routes which connected the East and West, and was central to the economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between these regions from the 2nd century BCE to the 18th century. The Silk Road primarily refers to the land routes connecting East Asia and Southeast Asia with South Asia, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, East Africa and Southern Europe. The Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative trade in silk carried out along its length, beginning in the Han dynasty in China. The Silk Road trade played a significant role in the development of the civilizations of China, Korea, Japan, the Indian subcontinent, Iran, Europe, the Horn of Africa and Arabia, opening long-distance political and economic relations between the civilizations. Though silk was the major trade item exported from China, many other goods and ideas were exchanged, including religions (especially Buddhism), syncretic philosophies, sciences, and technologies like paper and gunpowder. So, in addition to economic trade, the Silk Road was a route for cultural trade among the civilizations along its network. Diseases, most notably plague, also spread along the Silk Road. Some remnants of what was probably Chinese silk dating from 1070 BCE have been found in Ancient Egypt. The Great Oasis cities of Central Asia played a crucial role in the effective functioning of the Silk Road trade. The originating source seems sufficiently reliable, but silk degrades very rapidly, so it cannot be verified whether it was cultivated silk (which almost certainly came from China) or a type of wild silk, which might have come from the Mediterranean or Middle East. Archeological sites such as the Berel burial ground in Kazakhstan, confirmed that the nomadic Arimaspians were not only breeding horses for trade but also great craftsmen able to propagate exquisite art pieces along the Silk Road.
According to the passage, The Silk Road primarily refers to the land routes connecting to one another. Which routes were not linked by it? (DSSSB Junior Stenographer 2021)
A. East Asia with Southern Europe
B. East Asia with South Asia
C. South America and South Africa
D. East Asia with Persia
Answer: C
10. The term “Silk Route” in the ancient period refers to (CTET 2022)
A. the travelling route of traders from China to other countries carrying silk.
B. Sea routes connecting countries in which silk traders sold their products.
C. roads connecting all the countries in which mulberry plants were cultivated.
D. road and sea routes in which silk products were traded.
Answer: A
11. Who started the ‘Silk-route’ (Marg) for Indians? (UKPSC RO/ARO 2016)
A. Kanishka B. Harshwardhan C. Ashok D. Fahien
Answer: A
12. With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar, and Muchiri were well-known as (UPSC 2023)
A. capital cities B. ports C. centres of iron-and-steel D. making shrines of Jain Tirthankaras
Answer: B
13. Two thousand years ago, a trader narrates that he has been to Gaza, Petra and Apologos. Which of the following trade routes has he travelled through? (CTET 2022)
A. Route controlled by Roman emperors
B. Route under the rulers of Persia
C. Route controlled by Kushanas
D. Route under the rulers of China
Answer: A
14. Red sea is an example of: (UPPSC Civil Service 2017)
A. Volcanic valley B. Eroded valley C. Axial trough D. U-shaped valley
Answer: C
15. In which Indian state was the ancient sea port 'Muziris' located? (UP Police SI 2017)
A. Kerala B. Gujarat C. Karnataka D. Tamil Nadu
Answer: A
16. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2011)
1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene.
2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
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