BARRIERS FOR WOMEN'S WORKFORCE PARTICIPATION
1. Context
As India celebrates the 79th Independence Day this week, it is also a moment to reflect on the country’s journey towards inclusive growth. Over the years, women’s participation in the workforce has evolved. However, data shows that their participation varies across regions (such as rural and urban), types of work (such as blue- and grey-collar jobs and gig-based employment), etc.
2. Women's Participation in the Workforce
- Beyond age-related limitations, disabilities, and other circumstances that prevent working-age adults from joining the labour market, workforce participation in India also shows a pronounced gender disparity.
- Data from the 2022–2023 Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), carried out by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, reveals that roughly 80% of men are engaged in the labour force, compared to only about 40% of women.
- India’s female labour force participation rate is still lower than that of several nations with similar income levels and stages of development, leading to a significant underrepresentation of women in economic activity. While many women do work, much of their contribution remains outside the formal economy and is not reflected in the country’s GDP.
- This gap is not limited to rural regions or to women with minimal education; a substantial proportion of urban women, including those holding graduate or postgraduate qualifications, are also absent from the formal workforce
3. Women in different colour jobs
- In most professions, the process of formalising and professionalising work tends to offer men greater job opportunities compared to women, a trend especially visible in blue- and grey-collar occupations.
- Data from the PLFS 2022–2023 shows that women’s share in such roles rose from 16% in FY 2020–21 to 19% in FY 2023–24. While this indicates some improvement, women’s presence in these jobs remains limited.
- Blue- and grey-collar positions generally involve manual or technical tasks across sectors such as construction, retail, logistics, manufacturing, transportation, and maintenance.
- These jobs often demand physical effort, technical know-how, or mechanical skills, typically acquired through vocational education or apprenticeships. The work environment is usually field-based, including factories, workshops, and construction sites.
- According to Indeed’s 2025 survey, women account for only about 20% of India’s blue- and grey-collar workforce.
- Likewise, the Udaiti Foundation, in collaboration with Quess Corp Ltd., in its report State of Women in the Blue-Grey Collar Workforce 2025, underlines persistent structural challenges in the sector and stresses the urgency of targeted policy action
4. Structural Barriers
- While laws grant women equal rights, real-world conditions still hinder their participation in the labour market. These challenges are largely structural in nature.
- Factors such as inflexible work timings, pay disparities, limited access to training and skill development, insufficient digital literacy, inadequate workplace safety standards, and the burden of household and childcare responsibilities significantly restrict women’s entry into and retention in the workforce—especially in blue- and grey-collar sectors.
- Many such jobs demand long, fixed shifts, and social attitudes within families often discourage women from pursuing them. The combination of unpaid domestic duties and paid employment further disadvantages women.
- Wage inequality is another persistent hurdle, with gender-based pay gaps compelling some women to withdraw from employment altogether. This disparity is a global concern, reflecting deep-seated inequities in labour markets.
- According to the Bureau of Labour Statistics, in 2024, women globally earned about $0.83 for every dollar earned by men—translating to a 17% pay gap
5. Gender as a general barrier
- The Udaiti Foundation’s findings show that women working in India’s blue- and grey-collar sectors earn only around 70% of what men receive for similar work. Half of these women are dissatisfied with their wages, and as many as 80% manage to save less than ₹2,000 per month—or, in many cases, nothing at all.
- Beyond lower earnings, issues such as poor work-life balance, male-dominated workplace environments, and a lack of respect and recognition drive many women to leave these jobs.
- The report notes that over half (52%) of women with less than a year of experience intend to resign within the next 12 months. Low wages, unsafe working conditions, and limited prospects offer women little reason to remain in such roles.
- However, the most significant obstacle remains gender bias. Many employers hold the view that women are incapable of performing physically demanding work. This perception, combined with assumptions that women prioritise domestic and childcare duties, discourages hiring.
- Additionally, reluctance to provide maternity benefits and other entitlements further reduces the willingness of employers to recruit women in these sectors
6. Rise of Gig Economy
- The growth of the gig-platform economy has also deepened gender inequalities in employment. Roles such as driving and delivery are largely dominated by men and are often considered unsafe or socially unacceptable for women, further reinforced by societal stigma.
- Research by economists like Uma Rani indicates that while gig platforms market themselves as offering flexibility and empowerment, they often reproduce pre-existing gender biases.
- Women are concentrated in lower-paying gig roles, such as domestic work or beauty services, while men dominate higher-paying segments like delivery and transportation.
- Women’s limited access to public spaces—especially after dark—adds another layer of restriction. Since platform work relies heavily on mobility, a factor that has historically limited Indian women’s workforce participation, these constraints are amplified.
- Studies also show that commuting experiences in urban settings are shaped by gender, influencing women’s employment choices and opportunities.
- Transport inequities are further compounded by caste and class, as women from marginalised communities often reside in peripheral areas with inadequate public transport, making access to such jobs even more difficult
7. Regional identity-based variations
- Women’s workforce participation in India also varies by region and social identity. According to the PLFS, the unemployment rate among women has risen from 2.9% to 3.2%, with much of this increase driven by educated rural women unable to secure jobs in the blue- and grey-collar sectors.
- This is often due to gaps in digital literacy and vocational training. Historically, upper-caste women have exhibited lower participation in the labour market—particularly in manual or technical jobs—because such work is perceived as low in status, prompting families to discourage them from taking employment outside the home. Cultural restrictions similarly limit the participation of Muslim upper-caste women.
- By contrast, women from lower castes generally have higher participation rates, though mostly in informal, low-paying, and low-skilled jobs, reflecting their compounded social and economic vulnerabilities.
- These patterns have been studied extensively by sociologists and economists, including Mukesh Eswaran, Bharat Ramaswami, and Wilima Wadhwa in Status, Caste, and the Time Allocation of Women in Rural India (2013), and Muzna Fatima Alvi in Caste, Religion and the Labour Force Participation of Women: Evidence from India (2023).
- Further, research by Arun Kumar Bairwa and Jadhav Chakradhar in Caste Affiliation and Access to High-Authority Jobs in the Indian Service Sector (2024) reveals persistent disparities in access to senior-level positions between lower- and upper-caste groups
8. Possible solutions for all the challenges
- Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that tackles structural, cultural, and economic barriers simultaneously. Enforcing and implementing a robust minimum wage framework can play a significant role in narrowing gender-based pay gaps.
- Employment policies must also account for childcare and maternity expenses to encourage greater female workforce participation.
- Workplace safety is another critical concern, as many job sites still lack essentials such as CCTV surveillance and proper lighting. Improving infrastructure by ensuring safe sanitation facilities, accessible childcare, and women-friendly amenities is essential.
- Providing transport and accommodation options for female employees can further boost retention rates.
- On the policy front, there needs to be a stronger focus on vocational and skills training for women—particularly in rural areas—paired with effective systems to connect skilled women to suitable employment opportunities.
- Additionally, many field-based jobs lack formal grievance redressal mechanisms. Establishing such systems would give women the confidence to report issues and trust that their complaints will be addressed.
- Increasing transparency in recruitment processes, instead of relying heavily on referrals or word-of-mouth—which often deters women from applying—would also help. Finally, strengthening and expanding labour laws, with provisions for formal contracts and social security, would reinforce these measures
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For Prelims: Periodic Labour Force Survey, National Sample Survey Office, labour force participation rate, worker population ratio
For Mains:
1. Examine the changing nature of employment in India, as reflected in the increasing share of self-employment and the declining proportion of regular salaried jobs. Discuss the implications of this shift for the quality and sustainability of employment. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019)
Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India.
Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)
1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India
2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector
3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 2 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
3. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013)
(a) large number of people remain unemployed
4. Assertion (A): Workers - population ratio in India is low in contrast to that in developed countries. Reason (R): Rapid growth of population, low female worker population rate and omission of unpaid family workers lead to low worker-population ratio. Choose the correct answer: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018) A. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
B. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
C. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not a correct explanation of (A).
D. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D Mains1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023) |
Source: The Indian Express
