INDIA'S INDEPENDENCE AND PARTITION
During World War II, India played a crucial role in the British defense strategies in both the Middle East and Southeast Asia. The British government aimed to utilize India’s resources to support the war effort while exerting strict control over Indian affairs. Winston Churchill, who became Britain’s Prime Minister in 1940, was a strong imperialist and hesitant to make significant concessions to Indian aspirations for self-governance. However, within his War Cabinet, there was a split, with Sir Stafford Cripps advocating for the Labour Party's more progressive viewpoint, which supported India's independence.
In 1942, the Cripps Mission was dispatched to India, proposing post-war self-determination (dominion status) but with conditions that allowed provinces to potentially secede from a future Indian union, implicitly acknowledging the Muslim League's demand for Pakistan. The Congress party rejected this proposal, resulting in a complete breakdown of relations between British and Indian leaders. As the war continued, British prestige further declined due to Japan's advances in Southeast Asia.
At the same time, international pressure, especially from the United States, pushed Britain toward decolonization. By the war's conclusion, Britain was economically drained and faced increasing political pressure, prompting a change in its policies. The Labour government, which took office in 1945, was more supportive of Indian independence, though still cautious about fully relinquishing control.
This period marked the onset of Britain's withdrawal from India, ultimately leading to the 1947 partition plan that divided the country into two independent nations—India and Pakistan. The partition resulted from the complex interactions between wartime demands, international pressures, and the escalating Indian calls for self-rule
The Hindu-Muslim Divide and the Demand for Pakistan
- The partition of India was primarily influenced by the escalating Hindu-Muslim divide, which became evident during the negotiations leading to the transfer of power.
- The Lahore Resolution, passed by the All-India Muslim League in March 1940, represented a crucial moment, aiming to elevate the status of Indian Muslims from being a minority to a distinct nation.
- This resolution established Muhammad Ali Jinnah as the “Sole Spokesman” for Muslims, making the Muslim League's demands non-negotiable.
- Jinnah's rejection of the Cripps proposal highlighted his commitment to Muslim self-determination and equality with Hindus, rather than simply advocating for provincial autonomy.
- Winston Churchill leveraged the tensions between Hindus and Muslims as a justification for sustaining British control in India.
- During this time, the British actively supported Muslim League governments in several provinces, which further exacerbated the divide.
- Despite these circumstances, the demand for Pakistan remained somewhat unclear, emphasizing a desire for autonomy within a federal framework rather than outright separation
Political Negotiations and Failures
- In the 1940s, the Congress Party made multiple efforts to address the demands of Muslims through high-level negotiations. A significant attempt was the Rajaji Formula, proposed by C. Rajagopalachari in 1944.
- This formula called for a post-war commission to delineate Muslim-majority districts, where a plebiscite, based on universal adult suffrage, including non-Muslims, would determine whether those areas would choose to join Pakistan.
- However, Jinnah rejected this proposal, resulting in the failure of the Gandhi-Jinnah discussions in September 1944. The core disagreement lay between Gandhi’s vision of a unified India with some form of partnership and Jinnah’s demand for complete sovereignty, leading to a deadlock.
- The issue reemerged in 1945 when the then Viceroy of India, Lord Archibald Wavell, sought to establish a coalition government that included both Congress and the Muslim League.
- The Simla Conference of 1945, intended to discuss the creation of a fully Indian executive council, failed due to Jinnah’s insistence that the Muslim League alone should nominate Muslim representatives. Congress’s refusal to accept this demand, which would have limited its representation to caste Hindus, further heightened tensions
The Rise of the Muslim League and Mass Mobilization
- In the 1940s, the Muslim League garnered significant support among Muslims. During this time, the League evolved from primarily representing the landed elite to attracting backing from professionals, business communities, and religious figures.
- Its campaign for Pakistan was not solely a political endeavor; it was also infused with religious legitimacy due to the backing of prominent ulama, pirs, and maulavis.
- Jinnah's leadership became more authoritative as he consolidated his influence over the League's provincial branches. This centralization of power led to the sidelining of regional leaders such as A.K. Fazlul Huq in Bengal and Sir Sikander Hyat Khan in Punjab, who opposed Jinnah's dominance.
- The League's effective mass mobilization efforts in provinces like Bengal and Punjab were vital in positioning Pakistan as a symbol of Muslim unity that transcended class and regional differences
The Electoral Victory and the Mandate for Partition
- The Muslim League's mass mobilization efforts reached a peak during the 1946 elections, which were viewed as a referendum on Pakistan. The League's overwhelming victories in Muslim-majority provinces, especially Bengal and Punjab, cemented its status as the exclusive representative of Indian Muslims.
- In Bengal, the Muslim League captured 93 percent of the Muslim vote (as noted in Sekhar Bandyopadhyaya's From Plassey to Partition and After), while in Punjab, it made significant gains despite facing opposition from the Unionist Party.
- The Congress Party also achieved a popular mandate, winning a majority in most provinces except Bengal, Sind, and Punjab.
- The 1946 elections effectively sidelined other political parties, including the Communist Party, Hindu Mahasabha, and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s All India Scheduled Castes Federation. The election results were seen as a strong endorsement of the Muslim League's demand for Pakistan, paving the way for the eventual partition.
- In late 1946, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee acknowledged that maintaining British rule in India through coercion was no longer viable.
- He pointed to several factors: inadequate administrative resources, military obligations elsewhere, dissent within the Labour Party, questionable loyalty among Indian troops, and the reluctance of British forces to serve in India
- Global opinion and concerns within the United Nations further complicated the situation. Attlee’s government understood that the colonial rule could not be sustained, leading to a policy shift towards a graceful withdrawal.
- This was reflected in the actions of early 1946, including the announcement of the Cabinet Mission to India, which was intended to set up the constitutional framework for transferring power.
- While a phased withdrawal plan and a time limit on British rule were proposed, these were not fully accepted. Attlee’s approach underscored the inevitability of British departure, marking a significant shift in imperial policy towards India
The Cabinet Mission
Image Source: Bridgeman
- In 1946, the British government dispatched the Cabinet Mission to India to negotiate the terms of independence. Led by Pethick-Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, and A.V. Alexander, along with the then Viceroy Wavell, the Mission rejected the notion of a sovereign Pakistan but proposed a compromise involving a loose federal framework with groupings of provinces. This arrangement would permit provinces to withdraw from groupings after ten years, but they could not exit the Union.
- The Mission aimed to provide independence, either within or outside the British Commonwealth, depending on the Indian populace's choice.
- However, the Cabinet Mission's plan failed to bridge the conflicting demands of the Congress and the Muslim League. The Muslim League insisted on establishing Pakistan, while Congress sought complete independence for a unified India.
- The Mission's dismissal of a sovereign Pakistan exacerbated tensions, causing both parties to grow increasingly intolerant of each other’s positions. Its inability to achieve consensus further accelerated the inevitability of partition as the political climate in India became more unstable.
- By the time Louis Mountbatten arrived in India, the concept of granting independence with partition had already gained significant traction. An innovative proposal by V.P. Menon suggested an immediate transfer of power based on dominion status, which would include the right to secede.
- This approach eliminated the need for a lengthy wait for agreement in the Constituent Assembly regarding a new political structure
The Mountbatten Plan and the Partition of India
- The Mountbatten Plan, announced on June 3, 1947, outlined several significant provisions. The legislative assemblies of Punjab and Bengal were to convene in separate groups for Hindus and Muslims to vote on the partition.
- If a simple majority in either group favored partition, the respective provinces would be divided. In the case of partition, two dominions and two constituent assemblies would be formed.
- Sindh was permitted to make its own decision, and referendums were planned for the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and the Sylhet district of Bengal to determine their future.
- The Mountbatten Plan effectively acknowledged the Muslim League's demand for Pakistan while striving to maintain as much unity as possible. On July 5, 1947, the British Parliament enacted the Indian Independence Act, based on this plan, which received royal assent on July 18, 1947. The Act came into effect on August 15, 1947
The Indian Independence Act of 1947
- The Indian Independence Act established the formation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan, effective August 15, 1947. Each dominion would have a Governor-General responsible for ensuring the Act's proper implementation.
- The Constituent Assembly of each dominion was granted legislative powers, and the existing Central Legislative Assembly and Council of States would be automatically dissolved. Until new constitutions were adopted by each dominion, the governments would operate under the Government of India Act of 1935.
- According to the Indian Independence Act of 1947, Pakistan became independent on August 14, 1947, while India achieved its freedom on August 15, 1947.
- Muhammad Ali Jinnah was appointed as the first Governor-General of Pakistan. In contrast, India requested that Lord Mountbatten remain as its Governor-General, symbolizing a continuation of British oversight during this transitional period.
- The partition resulted in significant population movements, communal violence, and a humanitarian crisis, with millions of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs ending up on the wrong side of the newly established borders.
- Additionally, the division of assets, including military resources, civil services, and infrastructure, complicated the process further
