THOMAS JEFFERSON

Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) is not often recognized as a formal philosopher due to the absence of a dedicated philosophical treatise. However, his extensive writings reveal a deep engagement with philosophical ideas, shaping his political philosophy and views on education.

Jefferson was well-versed in the philosophical literature of his time and drew inspiration from ancient philosophers such as Epictetus, Antoninus, and Cicero. He also incorporated ethical principles from Jesus's teachings, coetaneous Scottish empiricists like Francis Hutcheson and Lord Kames, as well as other esteemed figures like Laurence Sterne, Jean Baptiste Massillon, and Miguel Cervantes. This diverse range of influences contributed to Jefferson's nuanced understanding of human nature, society, and the pursuit of the good life.

1. Jefferson's Cosmology and Materialist Philosophy

Thomas Jefferson's worldview was deeply rooted in empirical thinking and materialist philosophy, influenced by thinkers such as Isaac Newton, Francis Hutcheson, Lord Kames, and David Hume. His perspective on the cosmos and nature reveals a systematic approach grounded in observation and reason.

• Empiricism and Materialism: Jefferson, like his contemporaries, embraced empiricism, believing that knowledge arises from sensory experience. He viewed the universe through a materialist lens, asserting that everything, including the mind and deity, can be explained in terms of matter and motion. His correspondence with John Adams highlights his belief in the reliability of the human senses and the material nature of existence.
• Nominalism and Atomism: Jefferson's philosophical stance aligned with nominalism, rejecting the idea of abstract entities and emphasizing the uniqueness of individual entities in nature. He saw classifications such as species and genera as human constructs, not inherent in nature itself. His views on atomism were pragmatic, using atoms as conceptual units to aid in understanding matter without endless division.
• Divine Superintendence and Natural Order: In Jefferson's view, the cosmos operated according to natural laws and divine design. He perceived evidence of intelligent design in the harmony and complexity of the universe, including celestial movements, geological formations, and biological diversity. While acknowledging a divine creator, he leaned toward a naturalistic interpretation of divine superintendence, suggesting a pre-established cosmic self-regulation rather than direct supernatural intervention.

2. Transition from Nature to Society

Jefferson's understanding of human nature and societal development played a crucial role in his political and social philosophy.

• Middle Landscape Vision: Jefferson envisioned an ideal state for humans that balanced between savagery and excessive refinement, a concept Marx termed as a "middle landscape." His vision for America combined pastoral simplicity with the benefits of civilization, emphasizing freedom, land abundance, and avoidance of degenerative excesses.
• Natural Law and Social Order: Jefferson's natural-law theory was Stoic in essence, emphasizing inherent moral principles that guide individuals both in the state of nature and in civil society. He believed that the moral duties between individuals carried over into societal duties, forming the basis for social stability and cooperation.
• Equality and Unalienable Rights: Central to Jefferson's philosophy was the concept of equality, encompassing both equality of opportunity and moral equality. He advocated for republican reforms to ensure equal opportunities, eliminate social privileges, and uphold the unalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Jefferson's liberalism emphasized individual autonomy and the right to resist tyranny through revolution when necessary.

 3. Religion and Morality in Jefferson's Philosophy

Thomas Jefferson's views on religion and morality were deeply intertwined, reflecting his belief in individual freedom, moral sensibility, and the separation of church and state.

• Personal Faith and Religious Freedom: Jefferson emphasized the personal nature of religion, asserting that individuals have the right to worship freely without interference. He advocated for a strict separation between religion and government, arguing that the legislature should not establish or inhibit any particular religion. This principle was crucial in safeguarding individual liberty and preventing religious institutions from influencing political affairs.
• Morality and Religious Principles: Jefferson acknowledged the moral teachings common to various religions, he also emphasized the importance of morality independent of religious dogmas. He believed that true morality lies in the "mild and simple principles of the Christian philosophy," which are universal across different faiths. His focus was on moral conduct and ethical behaviour rather than doctrinal beliefs.
• Jesus as a Moral Reformer: Jefferson admired Jesus as a moral reformer and teacher, appreciating his emphasis on love, compassion, and ethical living. He considered Jesus' teachings to be the foundation of a great moral system, centred on principles such as love for God and humanity, as well as the concept of an afterlife based on one's actions.
• Unitarianism and Monotheism: Jefferson's Unitarian beliefs reflected his rejection of complex theological doctrines and his preference for a simplified approach to religion. He emphasized the unity of God and the importance of individual conscience in moral decision-making. Unitarianism for Jefferson meant living without hierarchical religious structures, following personal moral guidance, and embracing the core teachings of Jesus in their simplest form.

4. The Moral Sense and Moral Progress

Jefferson's concept of morality was rooted in the idea of a moral sense inherent in individuals. He believed that this innate sense guides people to recognize right from wrong, similar to sensory perception. Morality, in his view, did not rely solely on reason but was a spontaneous aspect of human nature.

• Moral Sensibility and Education: Jefferson argued that moral sensibility is essential for virtuous behaviour, and individuals without this sense can only mimic moral actions through external influences. He believed in cultivating moral virtues through education, self-discipline, and exposure to moral exemplars. However, he acknowledged that not everyone possesses the same degree of moral sensitivity.
• Moral Progress and Human Development: Jefferson shared the Enlightenment belief in human moral progress over time. He saw periods of moral decline as temporary setbacks rather than permanent regressions. Jefferson believed that liberty, respect for human rights, and ethical conduct were key factors in advancing moral ideals and societal well-being.

Thomas Jefferson's political philosophy is deeply rooted in republicanism, meritocracy, and the idea of periodic revolution when governments become abusive. 

• The "Mother Principle" of Republicanism: Jefferson articulated his understanding of republicanism through various principles. In his First Inaugural Address, he outlined essential principles of government, including justice for all, freedom of commerce and religion, and the supremacy of civil authority over the military. Later, he emphasized the importance of direct citizen action in governance, with representatives chosen by and accountable to the people. He believed that a republic is only as strong as its embodiment of the will of the people, executed through their chosen representatives.
• The Concept of Natural Aristoi: Jefferson distinguished between natural and artificial aristocracy. Natural aristos are individuals of virtue and talent, regardless of birth or wealth, who possess the skills and virtues necessary for governance and leadership. He argued that government should be guided by this natural aristocracy, selected through merit and trust rather than hereditary privilege or monetary influence. This meritocratic view of governance reflects Jefferson's belief in the potential of human talent and virtue to lead society.
• Usufruct and Constitutional Renewal: Jefferson's concept of usufruct, where each generation is responsible for its own debts and governance, reflects his belief in periodic constitutional renewal. He advocated for regular revisions of constitutions to align with the evolving needs and progress of society. Jefferson saw constitutions as tools for ensuring liberty and preventing the consolidation of power, emphasizing the importance of informed citizenry in governance.
• Revolution as a Mechanism for Change: Jefferson valued stability, he also recognized the necessity of revolution in extreme cases of governmental abuse and despotism. He distinguished between rebellions, which are local and quick responses to abuses, and revolutions, which are more complex and sustained efforts to overhaul abusive systems. Jefferson believed that revolutions should only occur in response to persistent and severe violations of rights, viewing them as mechanisms to restore and safeguard liberty.

Thomas Jefferson's philosophy of education was intricately linked to his broader political ideals, emphasizing the importance of education in creating an informed and engaged citizenry capable of sustaining a democratic republic. 

• Education for Republican Citizenship: Jefferson believed that education was crucial for the success of a republican government. He proposed a system of public education that aimed to provide basic education to all citizens, regardless of social status. His vision included ward schools for general education and higher-level institutions for advanced learning, emphasizing the need for citizens to be well-informed and capable of self-governance.
• The Importance of General Education: Jefferson's educational proposals emphasized basic literacy, numeracy, and knowledge of essential subjects for all citizens. He believed that an educated populace could be trusted with self-government and that education was essential for safeguarding liberty and promoting happiness. His advocacy for tax-supported, secular education aimed to provide equal opportunities for all, regardless of economic background or religious affiliation.
• Meritocracy and Intellectual Progress: Jefferson's views on education reflected his belief in meritocracy and human potential. He saw education as a means to tap into untapped human talents and virtues, fostering moral progress and societal improvement. By promoting free inquiry and scientific education, Jefferson aimed to create a society where individuals could contribute meaningfully to the advancement of knowledge and the betterment of society.
• Practical and Utilitarian Education: For Jefferson, education had to be practical and useful, equipping individuals with the skills and knowledge needed to lead fulfilling lives and contribute positively to their communities. He valued education that produced well-rounded individuals capable of critical thinking, moral decision-making, and active citizenship.
• Lifelong Learning and Self-Improvement: Jefferson viewed education as a lifelong process of self-improvement and civic engagement. He believed that individuals should continue to learn and grow throughout their lives, becoming active participants in political and social affairs. Education, in Jefferson's vision, was not just about acquiring knowledge but also about applying that knowledge to create a more just and prosperous society.

• Jefferson's Racist Views in Historical Context: Thomas Jefferson's views on race, particularly concerning Black individuals, are widely regarded today as racist. However, it's essential to understand that Jefferson's racial beliefs were influenced by the prevailing scientific and societal attitudes of his time. He was not ahead of his time but rather a product of the racial prejudices and scientific misconceptions prevalent during the 18th and 19th centuries.
• Racial Views in "Notes on the State of Virginia": Jefferson's "Notes on the State of Virginia" provides insight into his racial beliefs. He acknowledged Black individuals' equal moral capacity but asserted their inferiority in intellect and imagination compared to white Europeans. These views were rooted in prevailing scientific theories of racial hierarchy, which associated darker skin with inferiority.
• Influence of Contemporary Naturalists: Jefferson's views were shaped by the writings of leading naturalists of his day, such as Carl Linnaeus, Oliver Goldsmith, and Georges Cuvier, who viewed Black and Native American populations as inferior to white Europeans. These ideas were widespread and influenced Jefferson's perspective on race and human capabilities.
• Jefferson's Complex Views on Native Americans: Interestingly, Jefferson's views on Native Americans differed somewhat from his views on Black individuals. While he acknowledged Native Americans' artistic and oratory talents, he still held notions of their cultural and societal inferiority compared to Europeans. This inconsistency in his views reflects the complex nature of racial beliefs during that era.
• Impact on Jefferson's Political Vision: Jefferson's racial beliefs influenced his political thinking, especially regarding the integration of different racial groups into American society. He believed that Native Americans could potentially integrate, whereas he saw Black individuals as incompatible due to what he perceived as inherent intellectual inferiority.
• Jefferson's Role in Slavery and Abolition: Despite his outspoken opposition to slavery and occasional legal advocacy for enslaved individuals seeking freedom, Jefferson's actions regarding slavery were limited. He expressed scepticism about the feasibility of immediate abolition and believed that societal conditions were not conducive to rapid change.
• Modern Critique of Jefferson's Views: Contemporary analysis recognizes Jefferson's racial views as deeply flawed and based on erroneous scientific and societal assumptions. While acknowledging his contributions to American political thought, modern perspectives also highlight the contradictions and limitations of Jefferson's beliefs regarding race and education.