THOMAS AQUINAS
Thomas Aquinas, also known as Saint Thomas Aquinas, was a prominent theologian, philosopher, and scholastic thinker during the medieval period. He was born in 1225 in the Kingdom of Sicily (now Italy) to a noble family. Aquinas's life and work are integral to understanding the development of Christian theology, medieval philosophy, and the synthesis of Aristotelian thought with Christian doctrine.
1. Thomas Aquinas Natural Law
Aquinas begins by asserting that everything in the terrestrial world is created by God and endowed with a specific nature that defines its essence. This nature is not only observable in external appearances but also through natural inclinations that guide beings to behave according to their inherent characteristics. Aquinas considers God's creation and governance of these natural inclinations as a form of law, which he calls the eternal law.
- Eternal Law and Natural Law: The eternal law, according to Aquinas, is the supreme law derived from Divine Reason and governs the entire universe under God's providence. However, humans, uniquely possessing free will, have a distinct relationship with this law. Aquinas terms the law that governs human beings as the natural law, which is essentially a participation in the eternal law.
- Role of Natural Law in Morality and Politics: Aquinas views natural law as the fundamental guide for human behaviour, serving as the basis for morality and politics. It is through natural inclinations and the principles derived from them that humans are directed towards their natural perfection, intended by God. The first precept of the natural law, as Aquinas articulates, is the pursuit of good and avoidance of evil, which serves as a foundational principle guiding human reasoning and moral choices.
- Synderesis and Conscience: Aquinas introduces the concepts of synderesis and conscience in understanding the natural law. Synderesis represents the innate understanding of fundamental moral principles derived from the natural law, while conscience is the application of this understanding to concrete situations. Together, they form the basis for moral discernment and ethical decision-making.
- Natural Inclinations and Human Goods: Aquinas emphasizes that natural inclinations guide humans in discerning what constitutes good and evil. These inclinations are categorized into common inclinations shared with all substances, those shared with other animals, and those specific to human rational nature. Understanding and aligning with these natural inclinations are essential for living by the natural law.
- Limitations and Contextualization of Inclinations: Aquinas acknowledges that natural inclinations, such as sexual intercourse, must be understood within the context of reason and moral order. Acting on inclinations without considering their natural purposes and moral implications can lead to actions contrary to the natural law.
2. The Political Nature of Man
Thomas Aquinas's political philosophy is deeply rooted in his understanding of human nature and societal organization, drawing heavily from Aristotle's Politics. Central to his teachings is the concept of the political nature of man, which forms the basis for understanding human societies and their development.
- Origin of Political Society: Aquinas, following Aristotle, posits that political society (civitas) arises from the inherent needs and aspirations of human nature itself. Unlike modern social contract theorists who view society as a human invention, Aquinas sees it as a natural outgrowth prompted by human nature's inclinations and necessities. Living in a political society is thus not merely a convenience but a natural aspiration essential for human flourishing.
- Priority of the Family and Development of Political Society: While acknowledging the naturalness and priority of the family, Aquinas emphasizes that political society surpasses other communities in dignity and purpose. The family, as a natural community, provides a foundation for societal development. Villages and eventually political societies emerge as humans recognize the benefits of cooperation, division of labour, and the exchange of goods and services.
- Enhancement of Human Existence in Political Society: Political society offers more than economic advantages; it enhances the moral and intellectual lives of individuals. By participating in a broader social and political framework, humans transcend mere self-interest and contribute to the common good. Aquinas and Aristotle argue that the political community promotes virtues and a higher understanding of justice and morality, thus fulfilling humans' highest natural potential.
- Speech and Rationality: Aquinas underscores Aristotle's observation that humans possess speech, distinguishing them from other animals. Speech, as a tool of rational communication and deliberation, enables humans to engage in collective decision-making regarding what is beneficial, just, and morally right. This capacity for reasoned discourse forms the foundation of political engagement and civic life.
- Good Citizenship and the Common Good: Being inherently political beings, humans are called to be good citizens, prioritizing the common good over individual interests. Aquinas emphasizes the virtue of legal justice, where individuals align their actions with the common good of society. However, achieving good citizenship is often challenging in imperfect regimes where the interests of rulers may conflict with the common good.
- The Best Regime and Mixed Government: Aquinas, influenced by Aristotle's categorization of regimes, argues that monarchy is the best regime in principle due to its efficacy in achieving unity and peace. However, he acknowledges the potential for tyranny and corruption in absolute monarchy. Therefore, he proposes a mixed government that incorporates elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, balancing centralized authority with checks and balances to prevent abuse of power.
3. Human Legislation and the Role of Law in Aquinas' Political Philosophy
In Thomas Aquinas's political philosophy, the concept of human legislation plays a crucial role in complementing the natural law and ensuring the functioning of organized societies. Aquinas delves into the specifics of human laws, their origins, purposes, and limitations within the broader framework of natural law.
- Complementing the Natural Law: Aquinas emphasizes that while the natural law provides fundamental principles for human action and morality, it does not dictate all the specific requirements of social life. Human laws fill in these details that the natural law leaves open, such as determining forms of currency, frequency of road repairs, or the nature of military service.
- Enforcement of Justice and Morality: Human laws serve the essential function of enforcing moral and political standards derived from the natural law. They compel individuals to adhere to principles of justice and morality, especially in situations where not everyone acts by their rational capacities or where practical reason is not fully utilized.
- Conclusions and Determinations from Natural Law: Aquinas distinguishes between human laws derived as "conclusions" and "determinations" from the natural law. Conclusions are direct applications of general precepts of natural law, such as prohibitions against murder or theft. Determinations, on the other hand, involve specific details like the nature of punishments for crimes, which are not explicitly outlined in the natural law.
- Law of Nations and Common Principles: The law of nations, considered a subset of human law, embodies conclusions from the natural law that are universally applicable across different societies. These common principles include prohibitions against grave injustices like murder and theft, forming a basis for human laws that transcend particular regimes.
- Scope and Limitations of Human Laws: While human laws are necessary for societal order, Aquinas acknowledges their limitations. Human laws can be fallible, may not always apply in certain circumstances for the common good, and cannot govern the inner motives of individuals. They also prioritize addressing the most damaging vices that threaten societal well-being, rather than attempting to regulate all forms of immorality.
- Balancing Virtue and Practical Governance: Aquinas maintains a balance between promoting virtue through laws and ensuring practical governance. Human laws aim to deter major vices that harm others and disrupt social harmony, recognizing the limitations of coercive measures in directing individuals' interior acts of virtue.
4. Understanding the Requirements of Justice in Aquinas' Philosophy
In the political and ethical philosophy of Thomas Aquinas, justice holds a central place as it relates to the common good, peace, and the virtue necessary for a well-ordered society. Aquinas's nuanced understanding of justice encompasses various dimensions, including commutative justice, distributive justice, and the broader concept of legal justice.
- Peace and Virtue in Human Legislation: Aquinas argues that human legislation serves to promote peace and virtue within society. Peace, in this context, refers to the absence of aggression and threats to safety or livelihood, essential for maintaining social order. Virtue, particularly legal justice, is crucial for fostering behaviours that align with the common good and contribute positively to society.
- Legal Justice as a General Virtue: Aquinas defines legal justice as a disposition of the will where individuals act for the common good. This virtue is not limited to mere obedience to laws but extends to all actions that contribute to the well-being of society. For instance, acts of fortitude motivated by a love for the common good can also be considered acts of justice.
- Particular Justice and Its Forms: Aquinas distinguishes between commutative justice, which deals with individual transactions and debts between private individuals, and distributive justice, which involves the fair distribution of goods, services, and punishments within the community. Both forms of justice are essential for maintaining fairness and equality.
- Ius and Justice as Fairness: The concept of ius (right) is central to Aquinas's understanding of justice as fairness. Ius represents what is due to individuals in specific situations, ensuring that each person receives what is rightfully theirs. Whether in matters of exchange or punishment, justice requires restoring or maintaining equality according to particular circumstances.
- Usury and Violations of Commutative Justice: Aquinas condemns usury as a violation of commutative justice because it creates unfair disparities between lenders and borrowers. Usury, charging excessive interest on loans, distorts the purpose of money as a medium of exchange and undermines the principles of fairness and equality inherent in just transactions.
5. The Limitations of Politics in Aquinas' Philosophy
Aquinas, building upon Aristotelian political thought, emphasizes the goodness and naturalness of political society while also highlighting its inherent limitations. Understanding these limitations is crucial to grasping Aquinas' views on the role of politics in human life and its relation to higher moral and metaphysical realities.
- Scope of Human Laws: Aquinas acknowledges that human laws, while essential for societal order, are limited in their ability to regulate every aspect of social life. He argues that certain practices deemed unjust, such as usury, may remain unpunished due to practical constraints. Human law's primary focus is often on preventing immediate harm rather than addressing every moral issue comprehensively.
- Divine Law and Moral Perfection: Unlike human law, divine law, emanating from God, is comprehensive and infallible. It encompasses the interior motives of human actions and aims at moral perfection beyond the scope of human legislation. Aquinas contrasts human law's pragmatic approach with divine law's capacity to address all vices and guide humans toward moral excellence.
- Trans-Political Nature of Natural Law: Aquinas introduces a trans-political dimension through his concept of natural law, which reflects human participation in the eternal law established by God. Unlike Aristotle's purely naturalistic view, Aquinas posits a universal moral order governed by divine providence, transcending political boundaries and regimes.
- Epistemological Basis of Natural Law: Human knowledge of natural law, according to Aquinas, originates from a natural habit called synderesis, instilled by God. This knowledge precedes political society and is not contingent upon it, highlighting the primacy of divine authority in establishing moral principles.
- Political Society and Supernatural End: While Aquinas affirms the naturalness and importance of political society, he also emphasizes its limitations concerning humanity's ultimate supernatural end. Politics, as a natural institution, falls short of guiding individuals toward complete spiritual fulfilment and beatitude, which are attainable through cooperation with divine grace and participation in the Church's salvific mission.
- Role of the Church: Aquinas asserts the superiority of the Church in addressing humanity's supernatural needs and guiding souls toward spiritual perfection. Unlike political society, the Church is divinely established and concerned with the distribution of divine grace and the salvation of souls, transcending the purely natural realm.
