JEAN PAUL SARTRE
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) began his philosophical journey by constructing a unique form of existentialism. While influenced by classical phenomenology, Sartre diverged from thinkers like Husserl in his approach to methodology, the concept of the self, and his emphasis on ethics. This divergence led to his "existential phenomenology," which aimed to understand human existence, not just the external world.
1. Jean-Paul Sartre's Phenomenological Method and Early Works
- Methodology Jean-Paul Sartre's early works delve into phenomenological analyses, showcasing his interpretation of Husserl's method. While Sartre's methodology retains elements of Husserl's intentional and eidetic analysis, it diverges in significant ways. Sartre views consciousness as inherently intentional, directed towards objects in the world. However, he introduces the concept of transparency, where consciousness lacks an 'inside' and continuously flows towards the external world.
- The Ego In contrast to Husserl's view of the ego as a transcendental entity, Sartre rejects the notion of a pre-existing ego. Instead, he posits that the ego is constructed through conscious activity, particularly through reflective and pre-reflective consciousness. Sartre's model emphasizes the unity of consciousness and challenges traditional views of self-consciousness.
- Ethics Sartre's phenomenological analyses serve an ethical purpose, aiming to refute theories that attribute behaviour to unconscious or psychological factors beyond conscious grasp. His focus on agency, emotions, and imagination highlights the spontaneity of consciousness and the responsibility of individuals for their actions and states of mind. Sartre's ethical stance aligns with a strong notion of freedom and individual responsibility.
- Existential Phenomenology Sartre's exploration of human existence evolves into an existential phenomenology that prioritizes the human dimension over ontological inquiries. His existentialist perspective emphasizes existence preceding essence, portraying human existence as inherently problematic and contingent. This emphasis on freedom and responsibility distinguishes Sartre's approach from other phenomenological thinkers like Heidegger, marking a significant aspect of his philosophical trajectory.
2. Jean-Paul Sartre's Ontology in "Being and Nothingness"
"Being and Nothingness" is a phenomenological exploration of human existence that delves into ontology, presenting a distinction between two forms of transcendence: being and consciousness.
- Being of the Phenomenon and Consciousness Sartre diverges from Husserl by viewing the phenomenon as revealing reality rather than concealing it. He establishes a direct relation of being between consciousness and the being of the phenomenon, emphasizing transparency and rejecting a practical or epistemological relation.
- Two Types of Being Sartre introduces the concepts of "for-itself" and "in-itself" as two types of being. The in-itself exists independently, fully determined and non-relational, while the for-itself lacks self-identity and is defined as otherness. This distinction sets the stage for an exploration of human consciousness and existence.
- Nothingness Sartre's analysis of nothingness is a key aspect of his ontology. He illustrates how absence or negation, such as the absence of Pierre in a café, is experienced as a real nothingness. This nothingness is not merely a logical negation but is produced by consciousness, revealing the power of negation inherent in intentionality.
- Freedom and Negation Sartre links the power of negation to freedom, highlighting how questioning and negation detach individuals from deterministic constraints and reveal their freedom. This power to secrete nothingness signifies human freedom and autonomy, a central theme in Sartre's existential philosophy.
3. The For-Itself in "Being and Nothingness"
In "Being and Nothingness," Jean-Paul Sartre delves into the nature of the for-itself, focusing on its lack of self-identity, the project of bad faith, the fundamental project, and the role of desire within human consciousness.
- A Lack of Self-Identity Sartre emphasizes the for-itself's lack of self-identity as a fundamental characteristic. This lack stems from the negating power of consciousness, which destabilizes self-identity in reflective states. The for-itself is torn between positing itself as a unity and grasping its duality in reflection. This existential instability is further compounded by temporality, where the for-itself is never identical with its past or future, creating a continuous lack of self-coincidence.
- The Project of Bad Faith The project of bad faith is a crucial aspect of Sartre's analysis, illustrating how individuals deceive themselves by adopting roles or identities that deny their freedom. By identifying with predefined roles (in itself), individuals avoid the burden of freedom and responsibility. This project reveals the contradictory nature of human existence, where individuals deny their transcendence (for itself) while being fully aware of their freedom.
- The Fundamental Project Sartre introduces the concept of the fundamental project, which arises from the for-itself's desire for self-identity. This desire manifests in various forms, including attempts to transform into an in-itself, affirm freedom as a foundation, or reconcile freedom and facticity. However, these aims are inherently unattainable and lead to existential conflicts within individuals.
- Desire Desire, as discussed by Sartre, reflects the for-itself's quest for self-coincidence. Desire seeks a unity of being and satisfaction that is ultimately unachievable. Whether in thirst or love, desire aims to integrate the desired object into the self, representing a symbolic fulfilment of the fundamental project's quest for self-identity.
4. Relations with Others in "Being and Nothingness"
Jean-Paul Sartre's exploration of the for-itself extends to the realm of inter-subjectivity, addressing the problem of other minds and examining human relationships within the framework of existential analysis.
- The Problem of Other Minds Sartre delves into the challenge of understanding other minds. He critiques realist and idealist approaches, highlighting their limitations in grasping the transphenomenal nature of others. Sartre also evaluates Husserl and Heidegger's perspectives but finds them inadequate in fully acknowledging the distinct transcendental ego of the other. Sartre's phenomenological analysis, particularly through experiences like shame, reveals that the presence of others is essential for certain conscious states. This doesn't refute scepticism but establishes the existence of others as an a priori condition for certain forms of consciousness.
- Human Relationships In the context of human relationships, Sartre examines how individuals objectify themselves and others. Through experiences like shame, individuals can objectify their own ego or objectify the other, attempting to assert their selfhood. However, this leads to an inherent instability as it denies the other's subjectivity and undermines the basis for self-affirmation. This instability characterizes the conflictual nature of human relations, evident in phenomena like sadism, masochism, and love. Sartre suggests that these relational instabilities reflect a form of inter-subjective bad faith, where individuals fail to acknowledge the mutual dependence and subjectivity inherent in human interaction.
5. Authenticity in Sartre's Philosophy
- Freedom and Choice Sartre's philosophy carries a message of infinite freedom despite the constraints individuals face. While acknowledging physical and social limitations, Sartre emphasizes that freedom is inherent to consciousness as spontaneity. Freedom, for Sartre, is not just about the ability to act but also involves making meaningful choices, reflecting the individual's original project that unfolds throughout life.
- Authenticity Defined Authenticity in Sartre's philosophy entails choosing in a way that aligns with the nature of the for-itself, balancing transcendence and facticity. This concept echoes Heidegger's notion of being a Dasein but carries practical implications. Authenticity is about proper coordination between freedom and facticity, avoiding the pitfalls of bad faith that arise from an uncoordinated expression of the desire for being. It's not merely about spontaneous expression but about recognizing the responsibility to make meaningful and ethical choices.
- Ethical Dimension Sartre's existentialist ethics emphasize the normativity of authenticity. Authentic choices have a universal dimension, similar to Kant's ethics, based on the ultimate value of freedom. Each individual's choices contribute not only to their authenticity but also to the values created for humanity as a whole. This universality in authentic projects reflects what Sartre terms the 'singular universal,' showcasing the ethical depth of authenticity beyond mere spontaneity. Authenticity, therefore, carries an ethical imperative to make choices that align with one's true nature as a transcendental being with finite facticity.
6. Sartre's Later Contributions to Existential Phenomenology
- Critique of Dialectical Reason Sartre's engagement with political and social dimensions after experiencing war and interacting with thinkers like Merleau-Ponty led to an evolution of his existentialist philosophy. This phase, exemplified by works like "Critique of Dialectical Reason," combines existentialism with Marxist ideas. A central concept here is praxis, which expands on the notion of project. Praxis involves both production and being produced, highlighting the dialectical relationship between individuals and social structures. While individuals define their aims, they also confront limitations imposed by societal frameworks. This view tempers the earlier notion of infinite freedom with the constraints of historical and political realities.
- Practical Ensembles and Practico-Inert In "Critique of Dialectical Reason," Sartre introduces the concept of "practical ensembles," where praxis interacts not with abstract in-itself but with rigid institutions termed "practico-inert." People internalize universal aspects of their social context, shaping their development as praxis within a specific historical framework. This notion aligns with Sartre's idea of the "singular universal," reflecting the individual's negotiation between universal structures and personal agency.
- The Problem of Method Sartre's exploration in "Critique of Dialectical Reason" includes developing a methodological approach that considers individuals within their social milieu yet emphasizes their transcendence of societal determinants. This regressive-progressive method integrates Marxist historical understanding with existential psychoanalytic methods from "Being and Nothingness." It views individual development as a movement between historical universals and personal projects, offering a lens to analyze human life in its complexity. This approach is exemplified in Sartre's analysis of Flaubert and his attempt to understand the intelligibility of history, although this project remained incomplete.
Sartre's existentialist perspective on human existence can be condensed into the idea that the fundamental drive behind human action stems from the essence of consciousness, which inherently seeks to affirm its own existence. Each individual is tasked with utilizing their freedom in a manner that preserves their awareness of their factual existence while also acknowledging their capacity for free choice. By doing so, one gains insight into the original choices that shape their life trajectory and the values they uphold. This comprehension is attained through actively living one's life authentically, steering clear of self-deceptive strategies like bad faith. Choosing authenticity in human life thus embodies the actualization of universal principles within the unique context of an individual's existence.
