JEREMY BENTHAM
Jeremy Bentham (1748—1832), an English philosopher and political radical, is renowned for his moral philosophy, particularly his principle of utilitarianism, which assesses actions based on their consequences, specifically the overall happiness generated for all affected parties. Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke and David Hume, Bentham developed an ethical theory rooted in an empiricist understanding of human nature.
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1. Human Nature According to Bentham
- Jeremy Bentham, the English philosopher and advocate of utilitarianism, posited that morals and legislation could be understood scientifically, contingent upon an understanding of human nature. Bentham's theory of psychological hedonism asserts that human behaviour is primarily motivated by two fundamental impulses: pleasure and pain. He likens this to the laws of physics governing nature, with pleasure and pain serving as the guiding forces dictating human actions.
- In Bentham's view, while there is no direct empirical proof of this analysis of human motivation, he contends that all individuals implicitly reference pleasure and pain when making decisions and taking actions. Bentham famously states in the Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation that "Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure." According to Bentham, pleasure and pain not only explain human behaviour but also define what is good for individuals. Thus, he suggests that a calculus of value can be constructed based on these fundamental experiences of pleasure and pain.
- Additionally, Bentham espouses a form of psychological egoism, positing that individuals naturally prioritize their own self-interest over social interests. He argues that each person's self-regarding interest prevails over the interests of society as a whole. Consequently, Bentham views reason as subservient to the pursuit of individual well-being, considering it a natural capacity of the individual directed towards this end.
- Bentham's conception of the human person is largely individualistic, devoid of significant emphasis on social relationships. He regards the idea of "relation" and "community" as fictitious entities, merely convenient constructs for discourse. According to Bentham, the individual is akin to an atom within the social sphere, with no inherent self or individual beyond the biological entity. While acknowledging the importance of social interactions, Bentham maintains that they are not essential to defining an individual's identity or existence.
- Drawing on psychological associationism influenced by thinkers like David Hartley and David Hume, Bentham's analysis of habit underscores his understanding of society and politics. He views pleasure and pain as objective states that can be measured in terms of intensity, duration, certainty, proximity, fecundity, and purity. This objective framework allows for the comparison and evaluation of different activities or states.
2. Bentham's Moral Philosophy
Three Pillars of Bentham's Moral and Political Thought
Elie Halevy identified three key elements that underpin Jeremy Bentham's moral and political philosophy.
- The Principle of Utility (Greatest Happiness Principle): This principle, borrowed from David Hume, forms the cornerstone of Bentham's ethics. It emphasizes maximizing overall happiness for the greatest number of people. Happiness, in this context, refers to the presence of pleasure and the absence of pain. Actions are deemed morally right if they contribute to this objective, and vice versa.
- Universal Egoism: Bentham believed that pleasure and pain are the fundamental motivators behind human behaviour. This view aligns with psychological egoism, suggesting individuals naturally prioritize their own well-being.
- Artificial Identification of Interests: Despite advocating for individual interests, Bentham acknowledged the need to consider the collective good. He believed that legislators, through various means, could help individuals recognize how their well-being is intertwined with the happiness of others, ultimately promoting collective happiness.
3. The Principle of Utility
Bentham's utilitarianism, as it is often called, emphasizes maximizing general happiness through rational calculation. He argued that the principle of utility offers a clear and objective basis for evaluating actions and resolving moral dilemmas. He claimed that existing moral systems ultimately rely on the principles of sympathy and antipathy, which essentially align with the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain.
Justifying Concern for Others' Happiness
Bentham acknowledged that prioritizing the happiness of others might seem counterintuitive from an individualistic perspective.
He offered several arguments to address this
- Implicit Reference: He believed that individuals, consciously or unconsciously, already apply a similar principle when making decisions, albeit inconsistently.
- Intrinsic Value of Pleasure: He argued that pleasure is good in itself, regardless of who experiences it. Therefore, maximizing pleasure holds intrinsic moral value.
- Interconnected Interests: While acknowledging the tendency to neglect others' well-being, Bentham recognized the interdependence of individuals' interests. He believed legislators could help individuals recognize these connections.
Advantages of Utilitarianism
Bentham saw several advantages in utilitarianism
- Clarity: Compared to other moral principles, he found it to be unambiguous.
- Objectivity: It allows for rational and objective discussions on moral issues.
- Conflict Resolution: It provides a framework for resolving conflicts between seemingly justifiable individual interests.
- Equality: The principle of utility emphasizes equal consideration for everyone's happiness, ensuring that "each person is to count for one and no one for more than one."
Bentham's utilitarianism, built on the foundation of individualistic hedonism and a commitment to objectivity, offers a distinct approach to moral reasoning and decision-making. His emphasis on maximizing overall happiness and his arguments for considering the well-being of others continue to be debated and reinterpreted by philosophers and ethicists today.
4. Bentham's Political Philosophy
- Bentham is often considered the central figure among a group of intellectuals known as "the philosophic radicals," a group that includes notable figures like Mill and Herbert Spencer, whom Elie Halevy (1904) regards as his "spiritual descendants."
- While the philosophic radicals did not necessarily share a unified political theory, they all agreed that many of the social issues in late eighteenth and early nineteenth-century England stemmed from an outdated legal system and the dominance of the economy by a hereditary landed gentry opposed to modern capitalist institutions.
- Bentham believed that reforming the legal system required a clear understanding of human nature, and he advocated for several principles that challenged traditional Anglo-Saxon political philosophy.
- In his early work, "A Fragment on Government" (1776), Bentham criticized Sir William Blackstone's legal theory, particularly Blackstone's defence of tradition in law.
- Bentham proposed rational revisions of the legal system, advocating for a restructuring of responsibility determination, punishment, and a broader freedom of contract. He argued that these changes would not only benefit the community's development but also promote individual growth.
- Bentham's critique of Blackstone extended beyond tradition to reject several concepts foundational to earlier political philosophies, including natural right, state of nature, and social contract.
- He proposed alternative approaches to these traditional ideas and emphasized the importance of political reform and self-government.
5. Law, Liberty, and Government
- Bentham's conception of liberty aligns with what is commonly referred to as "negative" liberty, emphasizing freedom from external compulsion or restraint.
- He defines liberty as the absence of restraint and rejects the notion of "natural" liberty existing before society. Bentham argues that individuals have always lived within society, rendering concepts like the state of nature and social contract irrelevant.
- Despite this, Bentham acknowledges a moral distinction between public and private life and views liberty as a good reflecting the principle of the greatest happiness.
- Consistent with his view of liberty, Bentham considers law primarily as a negative force, restricting liberty and often causing pain to those affected.
- However, he recognizes the necessity of law for social order and good government.
- Unlike Locke, Bentham sees law as a command expressing the sovereign's will rather than rooted in natural law. Thus, even laws commanding morally questionable actions remain valid.
6. Rights
- Bentham's views on rights are perhaps best understood through his critiques of "natural rights."
- He argues against the concept of natural rights, considering it a perversion of language that leads to anarchical consequences.
- Bentham contends that rights are created by law and thus require government. He rejects the notion of rights existing independent of sovereign command and argues that rights must be specific and legally enforceable.
- While Bentham generally opposes the concept of natural rights, he acknowledges the utility of rights as a means of ensuring essential services and respecting the well-being of individuals.
- He enumerates numerous rights in his work, although their meaning is largely stipulative rather than descriptive.
- Despite debates over the consistency of Bentham's views on rights with his utilitarian principles, his critiques of natural rights continue to influence contemporary political philosophy.
7. Impact and Legacy
During his lifetime, Bentham's influence was relatively minor. However, his ideas gained traction in subsequent years through the efforts of his followers, including John Stuart Mill and John Austin. Bentham's utilitarian principles continue to shape debates in ethics, law, and politics, providing a framework for evaluating policies and institutions based on their consequences for human happiness. His legacy as a pioneering advocate of utilitarianism and legal reform endures, influencing generations of scholars and policymakers.
