The two-state solution refers to a proposed resolution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, envisioning the establishment of two separate sovereign states, Israel and Palestine, coexisting side by side within agreed-upon borders.

Key elements of the two-state solution typically include:

• Borders: Negotiating the borders between Israel and Palestine, which would likely be based on the pre-1967 lines (also known as the Green Line), with potential land swaps to accommodate demographic realities and security concerns.

• Jerusalem: Addressing the status of Jerusalem, which is considered a holy city by Jews, Christians, and Muslims. The two-state solution often proposes Jerusalem as the capital of both Israel and Palestine, with East Jerusalem serving as the capital of the Palestinian state.

• Security: Ensuring the security of both states, including mechanisms for demilitarisation, border security, and counterterrorism cooperation.

• Refugees: Resolving the issue of Palestinian refugees, who were displaced during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war and subsequent conflicts. The two-state solution typically involves compensation, resettlement, and/or return options for Palestinian refugees, while also acknowledging Israel's right to exist as a Jewish state.

• Settlements: Addressing the status of Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories. Many proponents of the two-state solution advocate for the dismantlement of Israeli settlements located outside of the agreed-upon borders of Israel.

• The origins of the two-state solution can be traced back to the 1930s during the period of British rule in Palestine.
• In 1936, the British government formed a commission led by Lord William Robert Peel, commonly known as the Peel Commission, to investigate the reasons behind the Arab-Jewish conflicts in Palestine.
• A year later, the commission recommended dividing Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. At that time, Jews constituted approximately 28% of the population of Palestine.
• According to the Peel Commission's proposal, the Arab state would encompass the West Bank, Gaza, and the Negev desert, while the Jewish state would include much of Palestine's coastline and the fertile Galilee region. However, the Arab population rejected this proposal.
• Following World War II, the United Nations Special Commission on Palestine (UNSCOP) presented another partition plan. This plan suggested dividing Palestine into three territories: a Jewish state, an Arab state, and an international zone for Jerusalem.
• Under the UNSCOP plan, Jews, who comprised about 32% of Palestine's population, were allocated 56% of the land.
• The partition plan was endorsed by the UN General Assembly (Resolution 181). Despite India's vote against it, the Arab nations rejected the plan, while the Zionist leadership of Jewish settlers in Palestine accepted it.
• Subsequently, on May 14, 1948, the Zionists unilaterally declared the establishment of the state of Israel.
• This declaration sparked the first Arab-Israeli war. By the time an armistice agreement was reached in 1949, Israel had seized approximately 22% more territory than initially proposed by the UN

• During the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel gained control of the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, and the Golan Heights from Syria.
• Israel still holds authority over these territories, except for the Sinai, which it returned to Egypt following the 1978 Camp David Accords. In the 1960s, Palestinian nationalism gained momentum under the leadership of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
• Initially, the PLO sought the complete "liberation" of all of Palestine, but later accepted the two-state solution based on the borders of 1967.
• Israel initially dismissed any Palestinian claims to the land and labeled the PLO as a "terrorist" organization.
• However, following the 1973 Yom Kippur War, during which Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel, Israel agreed to the Framework for Peace in the Middle East agreement at the Camp David Accords.
• As part of the Framework, Israel consented to establish an autonomous self-governing Palestinian authority in the West Bank and Gaza Strip and to implement UN Resolution 242, which calls for Israel to withdraw from all territories it occupied in 1967.
• The Framework laid the groundwork for the Oslo Accords, signed in 1993 and 1995, which formalized the two-state solution.
• Under the Oslo process, a Palestinian National Authority, serving as a self-governing body, was established in the West Bank and Gaza, and the PLO was internationally recognized as the representative body of the Palestinian people.
• The Oslo Accords held the promise of creating a sovereign Palestinian state coexisting peacefully alongside Israel. However, this promise has yet to be realized

5. What are the hurdles to achieving the two-state solution?

 

• he assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, a key architect of the Oslo Accords, in 1995, marked a turning point. The subsequent rise of a right-wing Israeli government and the Palestinian militant group Hamas, opposed to the agreements, further strained the peace process. Despite renewed diplomatic efforts, significant hurdles persist.
• One obstacle is the undefined borders. Israel's ongoing expansion through settlements in Palestinian territories clashes with Palestinian aspirations for a state based on the pre-1967 borders. The presence of hundreds of thousands of Israeli settlers who would need to be relocated creates a complex political challenge.
• Another issue is the contested status of Jerusalem. Both Palestinians, who view East Jerusalem as their capital, and Israelis, who claim the entire city, have deep religious and historical attachments to the city.
• The right of return for Palestinian refugees displaced in 1948 is another hurdle. International law supports their right to return, but Israel opposes it.
• These unresolved issues pose significant barriers to achieving a two-state solution in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict

6. Way Forward

While these are the structural factors that make the two-state solution complicated, on the ground, Israel’s rightwing leadership shows no willingness to make any concessions. Israel wants to continue the status quo — the status quo of occupation. The Palestinians want to break that status quo

 

 

For Prelims: GS II- Two State Solution, Conflict of Israel and Palestine For Mains: GS II - Current events of International relations, The Ongoing Conflict of Israel and Palestine

 

Previous Year Questions 1.The term "two-state solution" is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of (UPSC CSE 2018) A.China B.Israel C.Iraq D.Yemen Answer (B)

Source: The Hindu

 

 

MISSION MAUSAM

 

 

 

1. Context

 

PM Narendra Modi urged scientists to develop warning systems for earthquakes as IMD DG Mrutyunjay Mohapatra said that the Met department is working towards improving its weather forecast accuracy by another 10% to 15% in the next five years and ensure that no localised, severe weather events goes undetected

 

2.About Mission Mausam

 

• Mission Mausam, led primarily by the Ministry of Earth Sciences, is envisioned as a comprehensive and transformative initiative aimed at significantly advancing India’s capabilities in weather and climate science, research, and services.
• Its objective is to better equip various stakeholders, including citizens and end-users, in addressing extreme weather events and the challenges posed by climate change. In the long term, this ambitious program will strengthen capacity and resilience across communities, sectors, and ecosystems.
• As part of this mission, India will greatly expand its research and development efforts in atmospheric sciences, with a special focus on weather surveillance, modeling, forecasting, and management.
• By incorporating advanced observation systems, high-performance computing, and state-of-the-art technologies such as artificial intelligence and machine learning, Mission Mausam aims to set a new standard for highly accurate weather predictions.
• The mission’s priorities include enhancing data collection and understanding to provide precise and timely weather and climate information across various time frames and regions.
• This will cover monsoon predictions, air quality alerts, extreme weather warnings, cyclone forecasts, and management strategies for fog, hail, and rain. It will also focus on building capacity and raising awareness.
• Key elements include the installation of next-generation radar and satellite systems with advanced sensors, high-performance supercomputers, and the development of improved Earth system models. A GIS-based automated Decision Support System will enable real-time data dissemination.
• Mission Mausam is expected to have a direct positive impact on several sectors, including agriculture, disaster management, defense, environment, aviation, water resources, power, tourism, shipping, transportation, energy, and health.
• It will also enhance data-driven decision-making in areas like urban planning, transport infrastructure, offshore operations, and environmental monitoring

 

3. Key takeaways of Mission Mausam

 

• The mission will be primarily carried out by three major institutions under the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES): (a) India Meteorological Department, (b) Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, and (c) National Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting.

• These will receive support from other MoES organizations, including the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services, the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, and the National Institute of Ocean Technology.

• The goal of Mission Mausam is to strengthen India's capacity to forecast and manage extreme weather events and the impacts of climate change.

• The mission will focus on improving data collection and understanding to provide precise and timely weather and climate information across different time frames and geographic areas.

• It will gather data on monsoon patterns, air quality, extreme weather conditions, cyclones, and strategies for managing fog, hail, and rain.

• Key components of the mission include: (a) the deployment of advanced radars and satellite systems with cutting-edge sensors, (b) high-performance supercomputers and the development of improved Earth system models, and (c) a GIS-based automated decision support system for real-time data dissemination.

• The mission will benefit sectors such as agriculture, disaster management, defense, aviation, energy, water resources, and tourism.

• It will enhance decision-making processes in urban planning, transportation, and environmental monitoring.

• Through this initiative, India will significantly advance its research and capacity in atmospheric sciences, particularly in weather monitoring, modeling, forecasting, and management.

• The mission will integrate sophisticated observation systems, high-performance computing, and emerging technologies like artificial intelligence and machine learning.

• In essence, Mission Mausam aims to improve India's weather forecasting capabilities by upgrading monitoring infrastructure, investing in scientific research, and enhancing the skills of scientists

4. What is Cloud Seeding?

 

• Cloud seeding, a weather modification technique to induce artificial rainfall, has been tested in several countries, including India, with mixed results. Over the next 18 months, leading up to 2026, the number of doppler radars, wind profilers, radiometers, and radiosondes will see a significant increase.
• These instruments are crucial for gathering weather data from the earth’s surface, atmosphere, and oceans. Cloud seeding works by accelerating the natural rain formation process, but it only functions when sufficient clouds are present in the atmosphere.
• Rain occurs when atmospheric moisture reaches a saturation point, and cloud seeding helps speed up this process by introducing chemical 'nuclei' around which condensation can form. These 'rain seeds' may include substances like silver or potassium iodide, dry ice (solid CO2), or liquid propane, which can be dispersed either from aircraft or by ground-based spraying methods

 

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

 

Previous Year Questions 1.In the context of which of the following do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus cloud thinning technique and the injection of sulphate aerosol into stratosphere? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions (b) Reducing the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones (c) Reducing the adverse effects of solar wind on the Earth (d) Reducing the global warming Answer (d)

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

INDIANS AND H1-B

 

 

1. Context

 

Beyond H-1B visas, Trump is likely to bring three major changes to American technology policy – intensified competition with China, appointment of techno-libertarians, and domestic political divisions. India must prepare for these policy changes

 

2. What is H1-B Visa?

 

• The H-1B visa program for skilled workers was introduced in 1990. These visas are initially issued for three years but can be extended to a maximum of six years.
• Since 2004, the issuance of new H-1B visas has been capped at 85,000 annually, with 20,000 reserved specifically for foreign students who hold master’s degrees or higher from U.S. universities.
• This cap, however, does not apply to certain entities like universities, think tanks, and other non-profit research organizations, allowing additional visas to be issued beyond the limit.
• Applicants for H-1B visas must have a job offer from a U.S.-based sponsor, such as a company or institution. The U.S. government also grants extensions for individuals already working under H-1B visas.
• During the fiscal year 2023 (October 2022 to September 2023), over 386,000 H-1B applications were approved. This figure includes nearly 119,000 new visas and approximately 267,000 extensions.
• The total number of approvals in 2023 reflects a decline from over 474,000 in the previous fiscal year, 2022

 

3. Immigration in US

 

• Immigration remains one of the most divisive political topics in the United States. An October YouGov poll revealed that 14.6% of registered voters considered it the most critical issue in the upcoming election, a significant increase from just 2.1% in 2012.
• During election campaigns, much of the anti-immigration discourse centered on low-skilled labor migration. Beyond its inherent racial undertones, this narrative is driven by the perception that such immigration lowers wages and displaces jobs that might otherwise benefit the American working class.
• This demographic has long struggled with challenges like high unemployment, stagnant wages, inflation, a housing crisis, and other economic difficulties.
• Donald Trump effectively leveraged these concerns, pledging to improve conditions for the average American worker by restricting immigration.
• The current debate echoes many of the same themes as Trump’s rhetoric about Mexicans "stealing American jobs," though the focus has shifted to the immigration of skilled workers competing for higher-paying positions

 

4. Visa for Skilled Workers

 

Source: USCIS

• The H-1B visa program enables U.S. employers to hire foreign workers for roles requiring "a high level of skill" and "at least a bachelor’s degree," as outlined by the U.S. Department of Labor.
• Established in 1990, the program was designed to assist employers in filling roles that demand specialized skills not readily available within the U.S. workforce, allowing qualified foreign individuals to work temporarily in the United States.
• H-1B visas are typically issued for a maximum of six consecutive years. After this period, visa holders must either leave the U.S. for at least 12 months before returning or apply for permanent residency (a Green Card).
• Currently, the program has an annual limit of 65,000 new visas (the regular cap), with an additional 20,000 visas available for applicants holding master’s degrees or higher from U.S. universities. However, not all H-1B applications are subject to this cap, resulting in the total number of approved petitions often exceeding the cap.
• For example, in the fiscal year 2023, the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), under the Department of Homeland Security, approved 118,948 petitions for initial employment and 267,370 petitions for continuing employment.
• Certain applicants, such as those employed by higher education institutions, nonprofit organizations affiliated with such institutions, nonprofit research organizations, or government research entities, are exempt from the annual cap

 

5. Challenges

 

• Indian nationals are the primary beneficiaries of the H-1B visa program, consistently accounting for over 70% of all approved H-1B petitions annually since 2015, according to U.S. government data. Chinese nationals rank a distant second, making up 12-13% of approvals since 2018.
• This significant representation of Indian professionals has drawn the attention of nativist MAGA Republicans, who have extended their anti-immigration rhetoric from low-skilled labor migration by Mexicans and Central Americans to include Indian workers in the tech industry.
• Their argument revolves around the claim that the H-1B program, originally designed to attract exceptional global talent, is being exploited by tech companies to fill lower- to mid-level positions at wages much lower than those expected by American workers.
• While proponents like Elon Musk argue that H-1B visas address a "permanent shortage of excellent engineering talent," critics counter that the issue is not a lack of skilled American workers but that they are deemed "too expensive to hire" by tech firms.
• This critique is supported by data. An analysis of 60,000 H-1B approvals from USCIS in the 2023 fiscal year, conducted by Bloomberg, revealed that nearly 70% of Indian H-1B recipients earned annual salaries below $100,000.
• For comparison, the median salary for IT professionals in the U.S. was $104,420 in May 2023, as reported by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Approximately 25% of H-1B approvals for Indian professionals fell within the $100,000 to $150,000 salary range, while only 5% exceeded $150,000

 

6. Way Forward

 

H-1B visas play a vital role in addressing the skills gap in the United States, with wages largely determined by market forces. Globally, Chinese and Indian professionals lead in STEM fields. According to data from the Center for Security and Emerging Technology (CSET) in 2020, China produced 3.57 million STEM graduates, and India followed with 2.55 million, far surpassing the United States, which had 820,000 STEM graduates

 

 

 

For Prelims: H-1B visa, United States, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, STEM fields, lottery system,  For Mains:  1. What are the implications of the new H-1B visa regime for US-India relations? Discuss the measures can the Indian government take to support Indian IT workers affected by the new H-1B visa regime. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019) 1. Coal sector was nationalized by the Government of India under Indira Gandhi. 2. Now, coal blocks are allocated on lottery basis. 3. Till recently, India imported coal to meet the shortages of domestic supply, but now India is self-sufficient in coal production. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only     B. 2 and 3 only           C. 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: A   2. Which of the following statements about town planning in British India in early 19th century is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2018)  1. The funds for town improvement were also raised through public lotteries. 2. The threats of epidemics gave an impetus to town planning in the early decades of 19th century. Select the correct answer using the code given below A.1 only          B. 2 only          C. Both 1 and 2          D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: C

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

WILDFIRES

1. Context 

The crisis in California is not of this place alone, but of our place in this world at this time. Competence in human interaction, let alone civic management grounded in consensus on the sanctity of life, all seem lost in the social media age

 

2. About Wildfires

• Wildfires, also referred to as bushfires, vegetation fires, or forest fires, epitomize the uncontrolled and non-prescribed combustion of plants within natural environments like forests, grasslands, brushlands, or tundras.
• These fires, ignited by various factors, consume natural fuels and propagate based on prevailing environmental conditions such as wind patterns and terrain features.
• Three pivotal elements must converge for a wildfire to thrive: Fuel, Oxygen, and a Heat source.

2.1. Origins and Causes

Natural Causes: Many wildfires stem from natural triggers, with lightning strikes being a prominent initiator. These lightning-induced fires often ignite trees, yet the subsequent rainfall tends to douse the flames, minimizing damage. Elevated atmospheric temperatures and aridity, characterized by low humidity levels, create propitious conditions for fire ignition and spread.

Man-made Causes: Human activities constitute a significant driver of forest fires. Fires ignite when a fire source be it an exposed flame, a discarded cigarette or bidi, an electric spark, or any ignition source interacts with inflammable materials.  Such anthropogenic incidents can swiftly transform into destructive conflagrations.

2.2. Classification

Surface Fires: wildfires can primarily manifest as surface fires, advancing across the forest floor's surface layer, encompassing senescent leaves, twigs, and parched grass. The propagating flames embrace the surface litter, leading to a rapid spread.

Underground Fires: Underground fires, are characterized by low intensity, smoulder within the organic matter beneath the surface and the forest floor's litter. Often concealed, these fires extend several meters below the ground, challenging detection and control efforts. These covert fires, lingering for months, inflict substantial harm to vegetative cover.

Ground Fires: Ground fires, infiltrating the sub-surface organic fuels, transcend boundaries, involving duff layers beneath forest stands, Arctic tundra, taiga, and organic soils of swamps or bogs. The distinction between underground and ground fires isn't clear-cut, as smouldering underground fires can metamorphose into ground fires. These fires ravage the herbaceous growth on the forest floor alongside decaying organic layers, potentially annihilating vegetation. Ground fires simmer below the surface via smouldering combustion, frequently sparked by surface fires.

 

Image Source: CNN

2.3. Impact 

Wildfires can have a significant impact on ecosystems. They can destroy vegetation, kill wildlife, and pollute the air and water. However, they can also have some positive effects, such as clearing out deadwood and creating new growth opportunities.

2.3.1. Negative impacts of wildfires

Loss of vegetation: Wildfires can destroy large areas of vegetation, which can have a cascading effect on the entire ecosystem. For example, the loss of trees can lead to erosion, which can pollute waterways and damage downstream ecosystems.

 

Death of wildlife: Wildfires can kill animals directly through burns or smoke inhalation. They can also indirectly kill animals by destroying their food sources or habitat.

 

Air and water pollution: wildfires can release harmful pollutants into the air and water. These pollutants can cause respiratory problems in humans and animals, and they can also contaminate drinking water.

 

2.3.2. Positive Impacts of Wildfires

Clearing out deadwood: wildfires can clear out deadwood, which can help to prevent the spread of larger fires in the future. Deadwood is also a fire hazard, as it can dry out and catch fire easily.

 

Creating new growth opportunities: wildfires can create new growth opportunities for plants and animals. For example, some plants need fire to germinate their seeds. Fire can also remove competition from older plants, allowing younger plants to grow.

 

Reducing the risk of pests and diseases: wildfires can help to reduce the risk of pests and diseases by killing off infested trees. This can help to protect healthy trees and prevent the spread of pests and diseases to other areas.

 

3. The Historical Significance of Maui and Lahaina

• Maui is a popular tourist destination known for its beautiful beaches and lush rainforests.
• Lahaina was the capital of the Hawaiian kingdom from 1820 to 1845.
• The town is home to many historical landmarks, including the Waiola Church, which was built in 1832.
• The fires have caused extensive damage to Lahaina, including the destruction of many historic buildings.

4. Reasons for the Fires in Hawaii Been So Devastating

The fires have been so devastating due to a combination of factors, including:

Dry weather: The island of Maui has been in a drought for several months, which has created ideal conditions for wildfires to spread.

Strong winds: Hurricane Dora passed south of the islands this week, which created strong winds that fanned the flames.

Invasive plant species: Invasive plant species, such as fireweed, have spread rapidly across the island, making it easier for fires to start and spread.

Climate change: Climate change is making the Earth's climate warmer and drier, which is creating more favourable conditions for wildfires to occur.

 

5. Measures that can be taken to prevent wildfires

Create firebreaks: Firebreaks are strips of land that have been cleared of vegetation and are used to stop the spread of fire. They can be created by clearing trees, shrubs, and other vegetation, or by plowing the land.

 

Educate the public about fire safety: People should be educated about fire safety in forests, including how to prevent fires and how to stay safe if a fire occurs.

 

Use fire permits: In many areas, it is required to obtain a fire permit before lighting a fire in the forest. This helps to ensure that fires are only lit in safe areas and that they are properly extinguished.

 

Monitor weather conditions: Forest officials should monitor weather conditions and issue warnings when there is a high risk of fire. This allows people to take steps to protect themselves and their property.

 

Maintain fire equipment: Fire equipment, such as fire trucks and water hoses, should be maintained in working order so that they can be used to fight fires quickly and effectively.

 

For Prelims: Wildfires, Hawaii, USA, climate change, soil degradation, vegetation,  For Mains:  1. Explain the causes and factors that contribute to the severity of wildfires. Discuss the positive and negative impacts of wildfires on ecosystems. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Comprehension (SSC CHSL 2020)   Direction: In the following passage some words have been deleted. Fill in the blanks with the help of the alternatives given. Select the most appropriate option for each blank. Forest fire always (1) ______ by one of two reasons-naturally caused or human-caused. Natural fire is generally (2) ______ by lightning, with a very small percentage (3) ______ by spontaneous combustion of dry fuel such as sawdust and leaves. (4) ______, human-caused fire can happen (5) ______ any number of reasons. Select the most appropriate option for blank No. 1. A. takes up    B. happens    C. causes    D. creates   Answer: B   2. Match List - I with List - II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists: (UPSC CAPF 2015) List - I (Volcano type)                  List – II (Location) A. Shield Volcano                         1. Indonesia B. Composite Volcano                  2. India C. Caldera                                    3. Hawaii D. Flood Basalt Provinces           4. Phillippines 1. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3 2. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3 3. A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2 4. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2   Answer: 4   3. Recently, the USA decided to support India's membership in multilateral export control regimes called the "Australia Group" and the "Wassenaar Arrangement". What is the difference between them?  (UPSC 2011) 1. The Australia Group is an informal arrangement which aims to allow exporting countries to minimize the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons proliferation, whereas the Wassenaar Arrangement is a formal group under the OECD holding identical objectives. 2. The Australia Group comprises predominantly of Asian, African and North American countries, whereas the member countries of Wassenaar Arrangement are predominantly from the European Union and American continents. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only   B. 2 only     C.  Both 1 and 2    D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: D   4. In India, the problem of soil erosion is associated with which of the following? (UPSC 2014) 1. Terrace cultivation 2. Deforestation 3. Tropical climate Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 and 2 only     B. 2 only     C. 1 and 3 only     D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   5. The vegetation of savannah consists of grassland with scattered small trees, but extensive areas have no trees. The forest development in such areas is generally kept in check by one or more or a combination of some conditions. Which of the following are such conditions? (UPSC 2021) 1. Burrowing animals and termites 2. Fire 3. Grazing herbivores 4. Seasonal rainfall 5. Soil properties Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 and 2        B. 4 and 5    C,  2, 3 and 4     D. 1, 3 and 5   Answer: C

 

Source: The Indian Express